17-06-2014, 11:45 AM
BUSINESS RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT
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DATA EDITING:
Editing is the process of checking and adjusting data for omissions, consistency, and legibility. In this way, the data become ready for analysis by a computer.
So, the editor’s task is to check for errors and omissions on questionnaires or other data collection forms. When the editor discovers a problem, he or she adjusts the data to make them more complete, consistent, or readable. At times, the editor may need to reconstruct data. In the example above, the researcher can guess with some certainty that the respondent entered the original questions in months instead of years. Therefore, the probable true answer can be reconstructed. While the editor should try tomake adjustments in an effort to represent as much information from a respondent as possible, reconstructing responses in this fashion should be done only when the probable true response is very obvious.
Types:
Field editing
Preliminary editing by a field supervisor on the same day as the interview to catch technical omissions, check legibility of handwriting, and clarify responses that are logically or conceptually inconsistent.
In-house editing
A rigorous editing job performed by a centralized office staff.
SIZE CALCULATIONS:
Abstract
The importance of power and sample size estimation for study design and analysis.
SAMPLE SIZE ESTIMATION
Sample size estimations are measures of how many patients are needed in a study. Nearly all clinical studies entail studying a sample of patients with a particular characteristic rather than the whole population. We then use this sample to draw inferences about the whole population.
In previous articles in the series on statistics published in this journal, statistical inference has been used to determine if the results found are true or possibly due to chance alone. Clearly we can reduce the possibility of our results coming from chance by eliminating bias in the study design using techniques such as randomisation, blinding, etc. However, another factor influences the possibility that our results may be incorrect, the number of patients studied. Intuitively we assume that the greater the proportion of the whole population studied, the closer we will get to true answer for that population.
. Cover Letters
Many questionnaires will not be returned. Some people will discard them immediately upon receipt because they feel they don’t have time. Others will look at the length or the type of information requested and then ignore or discard. The cover letter you include with the questionnaire creates a first impression and may sway whether or not you get a return. A brief, grammatically well written letter outlining clearly why you are requesting assistance may keep the questionnaire out of the discard pile (at least for the time being!). Usually, the cover letter will include a requested date to receive the response.
6. Sending the Questionnaire
As you can imagine your response rate from university students would probably not be high if they received the questionnaire during finals week. A person sending a questionnaire to coaches would be well advised to avoid the height of the coaching season. To increase the response rate a stamped, self-addressed envelope is advised. Some people will feel guilty not using the stamp and may be more inclined to respond to your questionnaire.
7. Follow up
Response rates are typically much lower than expected. Some types of questionnaires with certain samples might elicit much higher than average responses. A 50% response rate is often as good as it gets. To increase responses many researchers develop a system of follow-ups. These might begin with a postcard reminder, then be followed up with another questionnaire, and finally - if the response is vital - with a phone call. The authors of your text note that when response rates are extremely low (10-20%), the value of the findings is highly questionable.
8. Analyzing the Results and Preparing the Report
Once the questionnaires have been returned with a satisfactory response rate, the data must be analyzed and reported. Most often descriptive statistics (means, medians, modes, %, demographic data etc) will be used. Remember however, that methods of analysis will of course have been decided in the planning phase of the study. To a great extent, the nature of the discussion section in your study will depend on the results you obtain.
The Delphi Method
As explained in your text the Delphi method is a survey technique that involves the use of questionnaires in an attempt to get consensus on a topic. Subjects respond to a first questionnaire, then based on these responses a second questionnaire is developed and administered. Each time the questionnaire is administered is called a "round." Suppose for example, you were interested in investigating the impact of the 1980 Soviet boycott of the Olympic Games. Using the Delphi method you could survey knowledgeable Russians and Americans, each time sharing the different perspectives obtained, in an attempt to identify critical issues and perspectives.
Personal Interviews
Personal interviews are similar to questionnaires except in the manner in which they are administered. Some of the advantages and disadvantages (or challenges) to this method are indicated below:
Developmental Research
Some years ago a researcher at the University of Oregon named H. Harrison Clarke initiated a growth study in the Oregon town of Medford. This project spurned many research papers, professional presentations, and graduate theses and dissertations. For several years researchers would visit Medford and track the growth and development of children in the public schools. This project provides an example of a longitudinal study - in other words a study of the same subjects over a period of several years. Were these same researchers to conduct a cross-sectional study we might anticipate that they would have visited Medford on one occasion and taken growth measurements of different subjects at several grade levels.
Developmental studies (despite the limitations noted in the text) can provide some fascinating insights and although only descriptive in nature can spark the researcher’s curiosity for more controlled experimental studies.
Case Studies
Some years ago a graduate student at our university was interested in examining the topic of teenage pregnancy. Although she could have researched the topic with a questionnaire she decided to use a case-study approach. The advantage of this method was that the topic could be examined in-depth, albeit gathering information from a much more limited sample of subjects than would have been possible with a questionnaire. In contrast to the questionnaire approach - which requires the researcher to have excellent knowledge of the topic when designing questions - case study researchers often approach their subjects with an inquisitive mind and an openness that permits subjects to respond in an unlimited number of directions. As you can imagine, this less structured approach may take researchers down avenues they did not anticipate traveling and open doors to new kinds of understanding.
In terms of the types of case study identified in your text, in the example given above the graduate student was probably conducting an interpretive study. Certainly, however she included a great deal of description. Were she to have approached the topic with the intent of identifying better ways of preventing teenage pregnancies then she would probably have conducted more of an evaluative study.
In summary, case studies tend to provide in-depth information about a limited number of subjects, and may produce new insights that generate additional studies.
Observational Research
A topic of great interest to those of us in teacher education has been in identifying those factors that contribute to effective teaching. Research on effective teaching has been through several stages. Initially, it was believed that the most effective teachers had special personality characteristics. Later it was suggested that the key to effective teaching might lie in the methods used.
Research in this area has often involved the observation of teachers and the categorization of behaviors. In observing the behaviors of teachers in classrooms in which learning is apparently occurring, certain commonalties have been identified.
The researchers who have investigated this area have engaged themselves in a type of observational research. Instead of approaching the question of effective teaching by asking questions, they chose to observe the behaviors of teachers. As noted in your text observational research necessitates adherence to certain guidelines in order to be considered as valid and reliable. As some of you know, here at CWU we use several of these observational methods (e.g. videotaped lesson analysis) in our undergraduate preparation of PE majors.
Correlational Research
Although we discussed the techniques of correlational research in our discussion about statistics, it is important to appreciate that correlational research is descriptive. Because there is no manipulation of variables or controls, in correlational research is impossible to conclude that something "caused" something to occur. Remember that correlations are indicators of a relationship and not an effect.
© New Product Research.
Developing a new technology or solution that fills a need for a customer is fulfilling. This feeling of accomplishment is not accompanied by the pleasant jingle of coins in the corporate pockets, however, unless the idea makes its way out of the innovator’s head, off of the planning board, and eventually off of the engineer’s harddrive. Product development teams and executives alike need to measure the success of innovation the way the corporation measures success – by the bottom line. Turning a concept into a profitable product or product platform is not an easy job, and requires people from multiple disciplines to work together. New product development (NPD) is a complex, collaborative process that requires coordinating the innovation efforts of many to meet a common goal. The following is a list of participating groups that may be required for a product to successfully come to market:
THE PRECAUTIONS THAT MUST BE TAKEN IN ACCOUNT OF USING SECONDARY DATA ARE:
The investigator should take precautions before using the secondary data. In this connection, following precautions should be taken into account.
1. Suitable Purpose of Investigation:
The investigator must ensure that the data are suitable for the purpose of enquiry.
2. Inadequate Data:
Adequacy of the data is to be judged in the light of the requirements of the survey as well as the geographical area covered by the available data.
3. Definition of Units:
The investigator must ensure that the definitions of units which are used by him are the same as in the earlier investigation.
4. Degree of Accuracy:
The investigator should keep in mind the degree accuracy maintained by each investigator.
5. Time and Condition of Collection of Facts:
It should be ascertained before making use of available data to which period and conditions, the data was collected.
6. Comparison:
Investigator should keep in mind whether the secondary data' reasonable, consistent and comparable.
7. Test Checking:
The use of the secondary data must do test checking and see that totals and rates have been correctly calculated.
8. Homogeneous Conditions:
It is not safe to take published statistics at their face value without knowing their means, values and limitations.