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INTRODUCTION
Moringaoleifera is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Moringa, which is the only genus in the family Moringaceae. English common names include: moringa (Olson, 2010), drumstick tree(Olson, 2010), (from the appearance of the long, slender, triangular seed-pods), horseradishtree: (from the taste of the roots, which resembles horseradish), ben oil tree, or benzoil tree (from the oil which is derived from the seeds). It is a fast-growing, drought-resistant tree, native to the southern foothills of the Himalayas in northwestern India, and widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas where its young seed pods and leaves are used as vegetables. It can also be used for water purification and hand washing, and is sometimes used in herbal medicine (Olson, 2010).
Plants have been an important source of medicine for thousands of years. Even today, the World Health Organization estimates that up to 80% of people still rely primarily on traditional remedies such as herbs for their medicines. The medicinal value of these plants is due to the presence of a variety of phytochemicals and their elemental composition. The role of medicinal plants in disease prevention or control has been attributed to the antioxidant properties of their constituents, usually associated with a wide range of amphipathic molecules that are broadly referred to as polyphenolic compounds (Olson, 2010).
There is a growing interest in the development and evaluation of natural antioxidants from medicinal plant materials in the food industry and the field of preventive health care. Among those herbs, one promising species is Moringaoleifera Lam. (Moringa or drumstick tree), which is native to the sub-Himalayan regions of Northwest India. It is widely distributed throughout Africa, Saudi Arabia, Southeast Asia, the Caribbean Islands, and South America. Every part of M. oleifera has medicinal properties and is commercially exploitable for the development of medicinal and industrial byproducts (Roloffet al., 2009).
Traditionally, the leaves, fruits, flowers, and immature pods of this tree are edible; they are used as a highly nutritive vegetable in many countries, particularly in India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Hawaii, and some African nations. In developing nations, M. oleifera is used as an alternative to imported food supplements to treat and combat malnutrition, especially among infants and nursing mothers, by virtue of its chemical constituents (Booth and Wickens, 1988).Several valuable reviews of the ethno botanical uses of M. oleifera are available (de Saint and Broin, 2010). Moringa has been found to be a good source of polyphenols and antioxidants. Photochemical, such as vanillin, omega fatty acids, carotenoids, ascorbates, tocopherols, beta-sitosterol, moringine, kaempferol, and quercetin have been reported in its flowers, roots, fruits, and seeds(Amaglo, 2006).
The leaves, in particular, have been found to contain phenolics and flavonoids; these compounds have various biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, immunomodulatory, antidiabetic, antiatherogenic, and hepatoprotective functions and the regulation of thyroid status (Booth and Wickens, 1988).
Moreover, leaves contain trace elements that are essential to human health. For instance, magnesium, iron, selenium, and zinc play an important role in metabolism, and interest in these elements is increasing together with reports relating trace element status and oxidative diseases However, a recent study has shown that dried M. oleifera leaves contain lead at very high values of 352.0 mg/L (Amaglo, 2006). Therefore, it is very important to identify the mineral composition of M. oleifera leaves that are widely consumed by humans and animals (Amaglo, 2006).
In Mexico, M. oleifera is widely cultivated in different zones of the country and is found in more than ten states from Sonora to Oaxaca on the Pacific side. Few studies have been conducted on nutritional and phytochemical composition; however, to date, a detailed composition of the leaves of M. oleifera that is native to Mexico has not been reported yet. In addition, it is important to bear in mind that the mineral and phenolics contents present in leaves depend on several factors such as geographical area where the plant is cultivated, type of soil, water and fertilizers, industrialization process, and storage conditions (Amaglo, 2006).
1.2 Description of Moringaoleifera
M. oleifera is a fast-growing, deciduous tree. It can reach a height of 10–12 m (32–40 ft) (Parotta, 1993) and the trunk can reach a diameter of 45 cm (1.5 ft) (Ted, 2010).The bark has a whitish-grey colour and is surrounded by thick cork. Young shoots have purplish or greenish-white, hairy bark. The tree has an open crown of drooping, fragile branches and the leaves build up feathery foliage of tripinnate leaves (Olson, 2010). The flowers are fragrant and bisexual, surrounded by five unequal, thinly veined, yellowish-white petals. The flowers are about 1.0-1.5 cm (1/2")long and 2.0 cm (3/4")broad. They grow on slender, hairy stalks in spreading or drooping later flower clusters which have a length of 10–25 cm (Roloffet al.,2009).
Flowering begins within the first six months after planting. In seasonally cool regions, flowering only occurs once a year between April and June. In more constant seasonal temperatures and with constant rainfall, flowering can happen twice or even all year-round (Ted, 2010).The fruit is a hanging, three-sided brown capsule of 20–45 cm size which holds dark brown, globular seeds with a diameter around 1 cm. The seeds have three whitish papery wings and are dispersed by wind and water(Parotta, 1993).In cultivation, it is often cut back annually to 1–2 m (3–6 ft)and allowed to regrow so the pods and leaves remain within arm's reach (Ted, 2010).
Breeding ofMoringaOleifera
In India, from where moringa most likely originated, the diversity of wild types is large. This gives a good basis for breeding programs. In countries where moringa has been introduced, the diversity is usually much smaller among the cultivar types. Locally well-adapted wild types,though, can be found in most regions (Radovich, 2009).
Becausemoringais cultivated and used in different ways, there are different breeding aims. The breeding aims for an annual or a perennial plant are obviously different. The yield stability of fruits is an important breeding aim for the commercial cultivation in India, wheremoringa is cultivated as an annual. On less favorable locations, perennial cultivation has big advantages. Erosion is much smaller with perennial cultivation (Grubben and Grubben, 2015).In Pakistan, varieties have been tested for their nutritional composition of the leaves on different locations (Booth and Wickens, 1988). The different breeding aims result in a different selection. India selects for a higher number of pods and dwarf or semi-dwarf varieties. Breeders in Tanzania, though, are selecting for higher oil content (Ramachandranet al., 1980).
1.3 Cultivation of Moringaoleifera
The moringa tree is grown mainly in semiarid, tropical, and subtropical areas, corresponding in the United States to USDA hardiness zones 9 and 10. It tolerates a wide range of soil conditions, but prefers a neutral to slightly acidic (pH 6.3 to 7.0), well-drained sandy or loamy soil (Ted, 2010).In waterlogged soil the roots have a tendency to rot (Ted, 2010).Moringa is a sun- and heat-loving plant, thus does not tolerate freezing orfrost. Moringa is particularly suitable for dry regions, as it can be grown using rainwater without expensive irrigation techniques (Ramachandranet al., 1980).
• Parameter Requirement/range
Climate Grows best in tropical or subtropical
Altitude 0 – 2000 m
Rainfall 250 – 3000 mm
Irrigation needed for leaf production if rainfall < 800 mm
Soil type Loamy, sandy, or sandy-loam
Soil pH
pH 5 – 9.
1.3.1 Production area of moringaoleifera
India is the largest producer of moringa, with an annual production of 1.1 to 1.3 million tonnes of fruits from an area of 380 km². Among Indian states, Andhra Pradesh leads in both area and production (156.65 km²) followed by Karnataka (102.8 km²) and Tamil Nadu (74.08 km²), a pioneering state having varied genotypes from diversified geographical areas and introductions from Sri Lanka (Raja et al., 2013).
It is grown in home gardens in Odisha and as living fences in southern India and Thailand, where it is commonly sold in local markets. In the Philippines, it is commonly grown for its leaves which are used as food. Moringa is also actively cultivated by the World Vegetable Center in Taiwan, a center for vegetable research. In Haiti, it is grown as windbreaks and help to reduce soil erosion(Raja et al., 2013).
More generally,moringa grows in the wild or is cultivated in Central America and the Caribbean, northern countries of South America, Africa, Southeast Asia and various countries of oceania(Raja et al., 2013).As of 2010, cultivation in Hawaii, for commercial distribution in the United States is in its early stages (Raja et al., 2013).
1.3.2 Cultivation practiceof moringaoleifera
Moringacan be grown as an annual or perennial plant. In the first year, all pods are edible. Later years also bear inedible bitter pods. Therefore, moringa is often commercially cultivated as an annual practice. On less favorable locations, perennial cultivation has big advantages. Erosion is much smaller with perennial cultivation.Perennial cultivation of moringais also practiced in agroforestry (Raja et al., 2013).
• Soil preparations ofmoringaoleifera
In tropical cultivation, soil erosion is a major problem. Therefore, the soil treatment has to be as shallow as possible. Plowing is required only for high planting densities. In low planting densities, it is better to dig pits and refill them with soil. This ensures good root system penetration without causing too much land erosion. The pits must be 30 to 50 cm deep, and 20 to 40 cm wide(Raja et al., 2013).
• Propagationof moringaoleifera
Moringa can be propagated from seed or cuttings. Direct seeding is possible because the germination rate of M. oleifera is high. After 12 days, the germination rate is about 85%. Production in seedbeds orcontainers is very time-consuming. In these techniques, the plants can be better protected from insects and other pests. They are also used in areas where soil erosion is a problem (Parotta, 1993). Cuttings of 1 m length and a diameter of at least 4 cm can alsobe used for propagation. At least one third of the cutting must be buried in the soil. In the Philippines, moringa is propagated by planting 1– to 2-m-long limb cuttings, preferably from June to August. It can also be propagated by seeds, which are planted an inch below the surface and can be germinated year-round in well-draining soil (Radovich, 2009).
• Plantingof moringaoleifera
For intensive leaf production,the spacing of plants should be 15 x 15 cm or 20 x 10 cm, with conveniently spaced alleys (for example: every 4 m) to facilitate plantation management and harvests. Another option is to space the seeding lines 45 cm apart and to sow every 5 cm on those lines. One can also space the lines only 30 cm apart and sow at a larger distance on the lines (10 to 20 cm) (Raja et al., 2013). Weeding anddisease prevention are difficult because of the high density. In a semi-intensive production, the plants are spaced 50 cm to 1 m apart. This gives good results with less maintenance (Radovich, 2009).Moringa trees can also be cultivated in alleys, as natural fences and associated with other crops. The distance between moringa rows in an agroforestry cultivation are usually between 2 and 4 meters (Raja et al., 2013). In Haiti, it is used as fencing and windbreaks on farms.
1.4 Yield and harvestofmoringaoleifera
M. oleifera can be cultivated for its leaves, pods, and/or its kernels for oil extraction and water purification. The yields vary widely, depending on season, variety, fertilization, and irrigation regimen. Moringa yields best under warm, dry conditions with some supplemental fertilizer and irrigation (Grubben and Grubben, 2015). Harvest is done manually with knives, sickles, and stabs with hooks attached. Pollarding, coppicing and lopping or pruning are recommended to promote branching, increase production and facilitate harvesting (Booth and Wickens, 1988).
1.4.1 Fruitsofmoringaoleifera
When the plant is grown from cuttings, the first harvest can take place 6–8 months after planting. Often, the fruits are not produced in the first year, and the yield is generally low during the first few years. By year two, it produces around 300 pods, by year 3 around 400-500 pods. A good tree can yield 1000 or more pods (Ramachandranet al., 1980).In India, a hectare can produce 31 tons of pods per year. Under North Indian conditions, the fruits ripen during the summer. Sometimes, particularly in South India, flowers and fruit appear twice a year, so two harvests occur, in July to September and March to April (Ramachandranet al., 1980).
1.4.2 Leavesof moringaoleifera
Average yields of 6 tons/ha/year in fresh matter can be achieved. The harvest differs strongly between the rainy and dry seasons, with 1120 kg/ha per harvest and 690 kg/ha per harvest, respectively. The leaves and stems can be harvested from the young plants 60 days after seeding and then another seven times in the year. At every harvest, the plants are cut back to within 60 cm of the ground (Sogbo, 2006). In some production systems, the leaves are harvested every 2 weeks.The cultivation of M. oleifera can also be done intensively with irrigation and fertilization with suitable varieties (Amaglo, 2006). Trials in Nicaragua with 1 million plants per hectare and 9 cuttings/year over 4 years gave an average fresh matter production of 580 metric tons/ha/year, equivalent to about 174 metric tons of fresh leaves (Amaglo, 2006).
1.4.3 Oilof moringaoleifera
One estimate for yield of oil from kernels is 250 l/ha (Ramachandranet al., 1980). The oil can be used as a food supplement, as a base for cosmetics, and for hair and the skin (Adeyeyeet al., 2011).
1.5 Macronutrients of moringaoleifera
The six main relevant macronutrients of Moringaoleifera dried leaves are proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, fibres and additionally ash and water content. Due to the fact that there is a large variation of results amongst all data, maximal and minimum values are taken for the analysis. Variations in data can relate to several reasons such as differences in analytical methodology, agro climatic conditions and different stages of leaves’ maturity (Makkar and Becker, 1996).Two main methods are used to analyze nutrients in moringa leaves: AOAC (As-sociation of Official Analytical Chemistsmethods) used by six sources (Ejohet al., 2010;Moyoet al., 2011; Oduroet al., 2008; Ogbe and Affiku, 2011;Oluduro, 2012; Price, 2000), and AOCS (American Oil Chemists Society)methods(Yameogo et al., 2011). For occurrence, specific chemical procedures, such as Soxhlet or Kjedahl are applied to examine respective lipids and proteins. For the simplification of the data collection, stan-dard deviation of each result is not acknowledged and mean values of studies are taken as actual numbers (Mensahet al., 2012).
A summary of macronutrients is shown in Figure 2 and illustrates the wide variation of values found. Using standard deviation, singularities are calculated. One dismissed value is found in the study made in Ghana, as the moisture value is 76.53% though; the mean overall values of the other studies are around 7.6 %. All evaluations are converted to g/100g dried leaves which is equivalent percentage. The graph shown that some studies have missing values which may be due to failure during the analysis or high singular estimations.