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(January 2014 – June 2014) at National Fertilizers Limited Naya Nangal, Punjab Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering Submitted By Gurdev Singh 100461130866 B.Tech (Mechanical) Department of Mechanical Engineering KC COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & IT NAWANSHAHR 144514 CONTENTS Acknowledgement 1 Certificate 2 Preface 3 CHAPTER 1 Company Profile 6 Production Performance 11 Financial Performance 11 Vision, Mission & Company Logo 12 Human Resource Management & Awards 13 Safety and Environment Management 14 CHAPTER 2 Introduction about Naya Nangal unit 16 Location of the factory 16 Various plants of N.F.L. 17 Product manufactured 17 By product of N.F.L. 18 Quality policy 18 N.F.L. at a glance 18 CHAPTER 3 Project 20 Detailed study of machines and their operations CHAPTER 4 Ammonia manufacturing 45 Hydrogen Production 46 Nitrogen Addition 46 Removal of CO, CO2 and H2O 47 CHAPTER 5 Urea manufacturing Synthesis 50 Purification 50 Concentration 51 Granulation 51 CHAPTER 6 Pumps Introduction 54 Types Rotodynamic 54 Axial flow b) Mixed Flow c) Radial flow Reciprocating 57 Piston type b) Plunger type c) Diaphragm type Rotary 59 a) Gear type b) Screw type c) Vane type ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I m very thankful to our college Director and Mechanical Engineering deptt. to provide me opportunity for six months industrial training at N.F.L. My industrial at National Fertilizers Limited, Nangal was the most practical and interesting experience. This industry is fully mind opener for graduate engineers for their introduction to the industry in public sector I m immensely grateful to all the officer and technician of Mechanical Engineering Deptt, for their excellent guidance. I m also grateful to our Training & Placement officers, I m indebted to the H.R.D. department of N.F.L. Nangal, for their valuable guidance and help during the training period for selection of study material. Last but not the least, I m thankful to the whole Mechanical Department of N.F.L. for proper guidance and inspiration. GURDEV SINGH ROLL. NO. 100461130866 MECHANICAL ENGG. (1) CETRIFICATE TO WHOME IT MAY CONCERN I hereby certify that Gurdev Singh Roll no.-100461130866 of K.C. College of Egineering & Information Technology, Nawanshahr, has undergone six months industrial training from January 2014 to June 2014 at our organization to fulfill the requirements for the award of degree of B.Tech. (MECHANICAL). During his tenure with us we found him sincere and hard working. We wish him a great success in the future. DATED:- TRAINING INCHARGE (2) PREFACE Mechanical is a multidiscipline subject, which embraces physics, metallurgy, thermodynamics, Mechanics fluids, chemistry and electrical principles and as such is an interesting and often stimulating area of engineering. Working in an industry provides us a practical approach to our theoretical basis of knowledge acquired in our classrooms. It has been a great pleasure, training at NATIONAL FERTILIZR Ltd., NAYA NANGAL. This industry helped me to boost up my practical skills Correlating the theories of book into actual work environment. The following implant training Rreport present all my observations, analysis made during my training period of six month. The report concern with the steam generation, ammonia manufacturing and urea manufacturing and section where I have been deputed in training. The information data furnished in the context are on the basis of my information collected through interaction with the engineers, technocrats, technicians and workers working in the firm. Despite taking every effort to produce an error free report, I apolpgize for any mistake evident in the context on my part. The main objective of industrial training is to enable the students to apply the theoretical knowledge to practical situation & to expose themselves to the industrial environment. It helps the students to understands the importance of discipline, punctuality & teamwork & also cultivates a sense of responsibility in them. With the help of training students get expose to the current technological developments & also to understand the psychology of the workers. CHAPTER 1 Company Profile Company Profile Consequent upon the reorganization of FCI group of plants, Nangal Plant was transferred to NFL & subsequently expansion plant of Nangal Unit was commissioned with an installed capacity of 3.30 LMT. Further in order to sustain and enhance the company’s growth, NFL successfully revamped Urea Plant of the Nangal Unit & Commercial Production was commissioned after revamp w.e.f. 1st Feb 2001 thus enhances the Annual installed Capacity from 3.30 LMT to 4.785 LMT . As per guidelines of GOI, in order to reduce subsidy burden & Carbon footprint, NFL revamped the Nangal Unit on LSTK basis for changeover of Feedstock from LSHS/FO to Natural Gas and commercial production on Gas was commenced during April 2013. SALIENT FEATURES OF NANGAL UNIT Installed Capacity: 478500 MTPA Capital Investment: 229.19 Crores Commencement of Production: November 1, 1978 Process Ammonia: KBR SMR(Steam Methane Reforming) with Purifier Technology Urea: Technimont Total Recycle Process Raw material: Coal , LNG/ RLNG, Power, Water NFL, a Schedule ‘A’ & a Mini Ratna (Category-1) Company having its registered Office at New Delhi was incorporated on 23rd August 1974. It Corporate Office is at NOIDA (U.P). NFL is under the administrative control of Ministry of Chemicals &Fertilizers, Department of Fertilizers. It has an authorized capital of 1000 crore and a paid up capital of 490.58 crore out of which Government of India’s share is 90% and 10% is held by financial institutions & others. NFL is India's largest Central Public Sector Enterprise in Fertilizers Sector with a turnover of over Rs. 7300 crores and an overall annual installed capacity of 32.31 lakh tonnes of Urea. NFL has five Urea plants located at Nangal & Bathinda in Punjab, Panipat in Haryana and Vijaipur I & II plants in Madhya Pradesh. Apart from producing Urea, NFL is also engaged in manufacturing & marketing of Industrial products, trading of complex fertilizers and other Agro Products.The annual installed capacity of the company has been augmented to 35.68 LMT after commissioning of revamp projects at Vijaipur-I & II during April / July 2012. NFL is engaged in manufacturing and marketing of Urea, Neem Coated Urea, Bio-Fertilizers (solid & liquid) and other allied Industrial products like Ammonia, Nitric Acid, Ammonium Nitrate, Sodium Nitrite and Sodium Nitrate etc. The Company is also doing trading business in various agro-inputs like certified quality seeds, compost manure, agrochemicals like Insecticides / Herbicides, Bentonite Sulphur etc. Company is also taking up initiative for setting up of Single Super Phosphate (SSP), Heavy water, Bentonite, Sulphur plants etc. The company has been mandated to revive the closed plants of Fertilizer Corporation of India Limited (FCIL) at Ramagundam in collaboration with M/s EIL and M/s FCIL by setting up Ammonia & Urea plants of annual capacity 7.26 LMT & 12.71 LMT respectively. The Company has also a Joint Venture (33.33% share). Urvarak Videsh Limited with M/s. KRIBHCO and RCF as promoters. The main objective of the joint venture company is to explore investment opportunity abroad and within the country in nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassic sectors and to render consultancy services for setting up projects in India and abroad. Production Performance The percentage share of NFL in Urea production in the country was 14.2% during 2012-13.The Company produced 32.11 lakh tonnes of Urea which includes 10.83 LMT of Neem coated Urea. 448 MT of Bio-fertilizers (solid & liquid) was produced during the year. Financial performance The company during 2012-13, achieved a sales turnover of ` 6747 crore (previous year ` 7341 crore). The lower turnover was primarily due to lower urea production as all the Units were under shut down for hooking up and commissioning activities of the projects. The loss before tax was ` 230.62 crore (previous year profit `184.20 crore) and loss after tax was ` 170.73 crore (previous year profit `126.73 crore). The main reasons for loss were due to the following: * Lower production / sale because of shut-downs taken for commissioning of Urea Capacity Enhancement Projects at Vijaipur and changeover of feedstock from Fuel-oil to Natural Gas at Nangal, Bathinda and Panipat Units. * Decrease in sale and contribution of industrial products due to non-availability of cheaper ammonia, non-availability of gases,Sulphur and Argon gas at three Fuel-oil based Units post commissioning. * Provision for Purchase Tax liability pertaining to previous years. * Higher interest expenditure mainly due to delay in receipt of subsidy. Some of the major strategic issues affecting the Profitability of the company include: * Non-allocation of domestic gas for operation of FO based plants converted on Natural Gas at Panipat, Bathinda & Nangal Units. * Non-revision of concessional price for existing capacity of Urea by updation of fixed cost in NPS-III. * Timely release of Urea subsidy from GoI Vision: “NFL will be a reputed, valued, major Indian enterprise, with domestic and International, diversified in addition to the core fertilizer business also into chemical, proto-chemical & related services trading business.” Mission: NFL’s mission is to be a market leader in fertilizers and a significant player in all its other business, reputed for customer satisfaction, reasonable reward to shareholders, ethics, professionalism and concern for ecology & the community. Company Logo Human Resource Management (HRM) Strategic HR planning is an important component of HRM. It links HR management directly to the strategic plan of the company in achieving organizational goals and supporting future direction to the organization. A study on organizational structure, performance Management System, Recruitment and Promotion policies of the company was conducted by an Expert Committee. The report of the committee is under examination for implementation. The Manpower strength of the company as on 31st March 2013 was 4291 comprising of 1802 Executives and 2489 Non-Executives. Total manpower includes 231 women employees which is 5.38% of the total workforce. The company undertakes several employee welfare schemes related to education, medical, benevolence, housing etc. As a measure towards employee social security, a defined Contribution Superannuation Pension Scheme has been implemented. Company has always supported consultative approach. The efforts to promote employees participation in various activities like Suggestion Scheme, Welfare, Safety, interactions between the Management and employees representatives on various issues continued during the year. To develop the skills and instill behavioral and personality development traits in all supervisory staff and managerial cadre, Company organized a number of training programmes during the year. These training programmes were identified through Performance Management System by systemizing organizational needs with individual needs. Apart from in-house training programmes, employees were also nominated for attending external training programmes on contemporary subjects Awards During the year 2012-13, Company received following prestigious accolades and awards. 1. “Shreshtha Suraksha Puraskar” for the year 2011 to the Panipat Unit from National Safety Council (India) Mumbai, amongst the manufacturing sector of Chemical & Chemical products. 2. National Level Fertilizer Association of India (FAI) ‘Runner-up Award’ for excellence in Safety in Nitrogenous and Complex Fertilizer plant to the Panipat Unit presented by Shri SK Jena, Hon’ble Minister of State for Chemicals & Fertilizers, GoI. Safety & Environment Management NFL remains focused towards achieving sustained energy efficient operations of its ageing manufacturing facilities at the same time maintaining pollution free environment and process safety. All manufacturing Units of the Company continue to be ISO 9001-2008,ISO14001-2004 and OHSAS–18001 certified, which indicates Company’s commitment to Quality Management System, Environment Management System and Occupational Health and Safety Systems. State of the art safety practices were adopted by contractors during the project construction and commissioning at Panipat, Bathinda and Nangal Unit at the time of conversion of feedstock from Fuel-oil to gas. There had been no reportable accident in any of the plant sites. Panipat Unit has been awarded “Shreshtha Suraksha Puraskar” for the year 2011 by National Safety. Council (India) Mumbai, amongst the manufacturing sector of Chemical & Chemical products and National Level Safety Award for excellence in Safety in Nitrogenous and Complex Fertilizer plant ”Runner Up for 2011-12” by FAI. To safeguard the Plants from emergencies which normally manifest in three basic form of Fire, Explosion and Toxic gas release. "On site Emergency Disaster Plan" is available in Units. It aims to train the people to act efficiently and confidently in emergency with minimum damage to human life and property. The procedures are regularly reviewed and updated by carrying out surprise mock drill. Silo system for collecting fly ash from ESP hoppers of coal fired boilers using dense phase pneumatic conveying system has been commissioned at Nangal in line with systems already in place at Panipat and Bathinda Units. These systems have reduced the quantity of ash slurry disposal and the ecological problem associated with its disposal and has helped in saving electrical energy used for pumping the ash slurry. Afforestation has been adopted by all units. 79729 trees in and around various units/ marketing offices were planted in Company’s drive towards leaving a cleaner and greener earth for future generations CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION NAYA NANGAL UNIT The Nangal unit of N.F.L. acted as a paragon of excellence in the field of development of the fertilizers industry in India. It has about 1600 employees working in different plants of the organization. Nangal unit began with the commissioning of the first fuel oil based fertilizer plant in India with rated capacity of 900 MT/day Ammonia and 1000 MT/day Urea. The adoption of versatile technology and desire for related diversification led to the manufacture of various product and by product like nitric acid, Ammonium Nitrate, Liquid Nitrogen, Liquid Oxygen, Industrial gases, etc. LOCATION OF THE FACTORY The factory is located near Nangal Dam and 8 kms from Bhakhra Dam. The nearest railway station is Nangal Dam which is connected with Delhi and Saharanpur via Ambala Cantt. Shivalik hills of the great Himalayas are situated 10 km away from the area of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and the area of 7x2 sq.km is captured by township for employees. The one side of the factory touches another factory of state govt. PACL (Punjab Alkalies and Chemical Limited). The availability of cheap and heavy amount of power from Bhakhra is due to direct convenience through both, road and rail and large amount of water from river Satluj. Good weather condition and cheap labour is another advantage. The location of N.F.L. is really unique. VARIOUS PLANTS OF N.F.L. NANGAL Ammonia Plant Steam Generation Plant (S.G.P.) Boiler Feed Water Plant Urea Plant Bagging Plant Nangal modernization Phase I Naptha Manufacturing Plant PRODUCT MANUFACTURED Nangal unit provide following industrial product Nitric Acid Anhydrous Ammonia Ammonium Nitrogen Methanol Technical Grade Urea Mill Projected Coal Carbon Slurry Ash Slurry Element Sulphur Nitrogen Gas Hydrogen Gas Oxygen Gas 13. Carbon Dioxide Gas BI-PRODUCT 1. Sodium Nitrate 2. Sodium Nitrite QUALITY POLICY NFL is committed to serve the farming community and other customers to their satisfaction by manufacturing and marketing high quality Fertilizers & Industrial Products and to continually strive to attain / adhere to highest standards of quality through: - 1. Process improvement and development. 2. Optimization of available resources. 3. Safety of plant and personnel. 4. Sustainable development and Pollution control. 5. Improved Organizational behavior. 6. Better Human Resources Practices. 7. Adherence to Statutory laws and regulations NATIONAL FERTILIZERS LIMITED at a glance: Cost (in crores) Urea Plant 132.00 Industrial Capacity (in tones) Urea Plant 330000.00 Raw Material Requrement 1. Electricity 40MW 2. Water 89MGallon/day 3. Fuel oil 720 tonnes/day 4. Coal 900 tonnes/day 5. Naptha 180 tonnes/day Total Production 1. UREA 1450 MT/day 2. METHANOL 67 TONNES/day 3. AMMONIA 900 TONNES/day CHAPTER 3 PROJECT PROJECT Title: - Detail study of the machine and their operations available at Mechanical Workshop. Introduction The Mechanical workshop is one of the most important part of N.F.L. It plays a very important role in maintenance work of the whole industry. As the name suggest all the heavy machines, like different type of Lathes, Drills, Milling machines, shaper etc are housed in this shop. This shop is called as backbone of the industry. This shop is divided into following subdivisions. LATHE division. Drilling division. Milling division. Sheet Fabrication division. Grinding division, Shaping Division Welding Division. Boring Division Store LATHE DIVISION:- In this department various types of Center Lathes, depending upon models, are used for accomplishment of various types of operations. Principle of Lathe: “Lathe is a machine tool which removes undesired material from a rotating work piece in the form of chips with the help of single point cutting tool.” A manual lathe requires the operator to control the motion of the cutting tool during the turning operation. Turning machines are also able to be computer controlled, in which case they are referred to as a computer numerical control (CNC) lathe. CNC lathes rotate the workpiece and move the cutting tool based on commands that are preprogrammed and offer very high precision. In this variety of turning machines, the main components that enable the workpiece to be rotated and the cutting tool to be fed into the workpiece remain the same. These components include the following: Bed - The bed of the turning machine is simply a large base that sits on the ground or a table and supports the other components of the machine. Headstock assembly - The headstock assembly is the front section of the machine that is attached to the bed. This assembly contains the motor and drive system which powers the spindle. The spindle supports and rotates the workpiece, which is secured in a workpiece holder or fixture, such as a chuck or collets. Tailstock assembly - The tailstock assembly is the rear section of the machine that is attached to the bed. The purpose of this assembly is to support the other end of the workpiece and allow it to rotate, as it's driven by the spindle. For some turning operations, the workpiece is not supported by the tailstock so that material can be removed from the end. Carriage - The carriage is a platform that slides alongside the workpiece, allowing the cutting tool to cut away material as it moves. The carriage rests on tracks that lay on the bed, called "ways", and is advanced by a lead screw powered by a motor or hand wheel. Cross slide - The cross slide is attached to the top of the carriage and allows the tool to move towards or away from the workpiece, changing the depth of cut. As with the carriage, the cross slide is powered by a motor or hand wheel. Compound - The compound is attached on top of the cross slide and supports the cutting tool. The cutting tool is secured in a tool post which is fixed to the compound. The compound can rotate to alter the angle of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece. Turret - Some machines include a turret, which can hold multiple cutting tools and rotates the required tool into position to cut the workpiece. The turret also moves along the workpiece, feeding the cutting tool into the material. While most cutting tools are stationary in the turret, live tooling can also be used. Live tooling refers to powered tools, such as mills, drills, reamers, and taps, which rotate and cut the workpiece. Turning and its related operations Turning: - Turning is used to produce rotational, typically symmetric, parts that have many features, such as holes, grooves, threads, tapers, various diameter steps, and even contoured surfaces. Parts that are fabricated completely through turning often include components that are used in limited quantities, perhaps for prototypes, such as custom designed shafts and fasteners. Turning is also commonly used as a secondary process to add or refine features on parts that were manufactured using a different process. Due to the high tolerances and surface finishes that turning can offer, it is ideal for adding precision rotational features to a part whose basic shape has already been formed. Cutting-Parameters In turning, the speed and motion of the cutting tool is specified through several parameters. These parameters are selected for each operation based upon the work piece material, tool material, tool size, and more. Cutting feed - The distance that the cutting tool or work piece advances during one revolution of the spindle, measured in inches per revolution (IPR). In some operations the tool feeds into the work piece and in others the work piece feeds into the tool. For a multi-point tool, the cutting feed is also equal to the feed per tooth, measured in inches per tooth (IPT), multiplied by the number of teeth on the cutting tool. Cutting speed - The speed of the work piece surface relative to the edge of the cutting tool during a cut, measured in surface feet per minute (SFM). Spindle speed - The rotational speed of the spindle and the work piece in revolutions per minute (RPM). The spindle speed is equal to the cutting speed divided by the circumference of the work piece where the cut is being made. In order to maintain a constant cutting speed, the spindle speed must vary based on the diameter of the cut. If the spindle speed is held constant, then the cutting speed will vary. Feed rate - The speed of the cutting tool's movement relative to the work piece as the tool makes a cut. The feed rate is measured in inches per minute (IPM) and is the product of the cutting feed (IPR) and the spindle speed (RPM). Axial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along the axis of the work piece as it makes a cut, as in a facing operation. A large axial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is typically machined in several passes as the tool moves to the specified axial depth of cut for each pass. Operations During the process cycle, a variety of operations may be performed to the work piece to yield the desired part shape. These operations may be classified as external or internal. External operations modify the outer diameter of the work piece, while internal operations modify the inner diameter. The following operations are each defined by the type of cutter used and the path of that cutter to remove material from the work piece. External Operation Turning - A single-point turning tool moves axially, along the side of the work piece, removing material to form different features, including steps, tapers, chamfers, and contours. These features are typically machined at a small radial depth of cut and multiple passes are made until the end diameter is reached. Facing - A single-point turning tool moves radically, along the end of the work piece, removing a thin layer of material to provide a smooth flat surface. The depth of the face, typically very small, may be machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes. Grooving - A single-point turning tool moves radically, into the side of the work piece, cutting a groove equal in width to the cutting tool. Multiple cuts can be made to form grooves larger than the tool width and special form tools can be used to create grooves of varying geometries. Cut-off (parting) - Similar to grooving, a single-point cut-off tool moves radically, into the side of the work piece, and continues until the center or inner diameter of the work piece is reached, thus parting or cutting off a section of the work piece. Thread cutting - A single-point threading tool, typically with a 60 degree pointed nose, moves axially, along the side of the workpiece, cutting threads into the outer surface. The threads can be cut to a specified length and pitch and may require multiple passes to be formed. Internal Operations Drilling - A drill enters the work piece axially through the end and cuts a hole with a diameter equal to that of the tool. Boring - A boring tool enters the work piece axially and cuts along an internal surface to form different features, such as steps, tapers, chamfers, and contours. The boring tool is a single-point cutting tool, which can be set to cut the desired diameter by using an adjustable boring head. Boring is commonly performed after drilling a hole in order to enlarge the diameter or obtain more precise dimensions. Reaming - A reamer enters the work piece axially through the end and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal finish. Tapping - A tap enters the work piece axially through the end and cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap drill size that will accommodate the desired tap. Knurling: Sometimes jobs need a pattern on surface so that they can be handled with better grip. This can be done by using Knurl tool. Taper Turning: Operation of producing external conical surface of the job. Method of Taper Turning. 1) By forming tool method. 2) By swiveling compound rest. 3) Tail stock off set method Tan α = D-d/L Or α = D-d/L* 200/7 (where D= larger Diameter, d= small Diameter, L=Taper Length) Chamfering: Operation of beveling, the external edge of job which helps to avoid injury. Cutting Speed:- The speed at which the metal is removed by the cutting tool from the job. Expressed in m/min. V = πDN/1000m/min. D = Diameter of job in mm, N = R.P.M. of spindle of the lathe. Feed:- The distance by which the cutting tool advances during one revolution of the job and expressed in mm/rev. Depth of Cut:- The perpendicular distance between un-machined and machined surface. Mathematically, t = Dold-Dnew/2 t = Depth of cut, D old = Un-machined Dia., D new = Machined Dia. DRILLING DIVISION:- Principle of drilling:- Process of producing cylindrical hole on stationary job with the help of revolving multi point cutting tool (or end cutting tool). In machining, a hole is a cylindrical feature that is cut from the workpiece by a rotating cutting tool that enters the workpiece axially. The hole will have the same diameter of the cutting tool and match the geometry. While all machined holes have the same basic form they can still differ in many ways to best suit a given application. A machined hole can be characterized by several different parameters or features which will determine the hole-making operation and tool that is required. Diameter - Holes can be machined in a wide variety of diameters, determined by the selected tool. The cutting tools used for hole-making are available in standard sizes that can be as small as 0.0019 inches and as large as 3 inches. Several standards exist including fractional sizes, letter sizes, number sizes, and metric sizes. A custom tool can be created to machine a non-standard diameter, but it is more cost effective to use the closest standard sized tool. Tolerance - In any machining operation, the precision of a cut can be affected by several factors, including the sharpness of the tool, any vibration of the tool, or the build up of chips of material. The specified tolerance of a hole will determine the method of hole-making used, as some methods are suited for tight-tolerance holes. Depth - A machined hole may extend to a point within the workpiece, known as a blind hole, or it may extend completely through the workpiece, known as a through hole. A blind hole may have a flat bottom, but typically ends in a point due to the pointed end of the tool. When specifying the depth of a hole, one may reference the depth to the point or the depth to the end of the full diameter portion of the hole. The total depth of the hole is limited by the length of the cutting tool. Recessed top - A common feature of machined holes is to recess the top of the hole into the workpiece. This is typically done to accommodate the head of a fastener and allow it to sit flush with the workpiece surface. Two types of recessed holes are a counterbore, which has a cylindrical recess, and a countersink, which has a cone-shaped recess. Threads - Threaded holes are machined to accommodate a threaded fastener and are typically specified by their outer diameter and pitch. The pitch is a measure of the spacing between threads and may be expressed in the English standard, as the number of threads per inch (TPI), or in the metric standard, as the distance in millimeters (mm) between threads. Various operations that can be performed on Drilling Machine Drilling - A drill bit enters the workpiece axially and cuts a blind hole or a through hole with a diameter equal to that of the tool. A drill bit is a multi-point tool and typically has a pointed end. A twist drill is the most commonly used, but other types of drill bits, such as a center drill, spot drill, or tap drill can be used to start a hole that will be completed by another operation. Reaming - A reamer enters the workpiece axially and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. A reamer is a multi-point tool that has many flutes, which may be straight or in a helix. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal finish. Boring - A boring tool enters the workpiece axially and cuts along the internal surface of an existing hole to enlarge the diameter or obtain more precise dimensions. The boring tool is a single-point cutting tool, which can be set to cut the desired diameter by using an adjustable boring head. Counterboring - A counterbore tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top portion of an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Counterboring is often performed after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a bolt, to sit flush with the workpiece surface. The counterboring tool has a pilot on the end to guide it straight into the existing hole. Countersinking - A countersink tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top portion of an existing hole to a cone-shaped opening. Countersinking is often performed after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a screw, to sit flush with the workpiece surface. Common included angles for a countersink include 60, 82, 90, 100, 118, and 120 degrees. MILLING DIVISION Principle of milling:- The work is held rigidly on table of machine while the cutter is mounted on a spindle arbor. The chips are cut off by rotating milling cutter. The cutting edges are arranged in a circular way. Milling is typically used to produce parts that are not axially symmetric and have many features, such as holes, slots, pockets, and even three dimensional surface contours. Parts that are fabricated completely through milling often include components that are used in limited quantities, perhaps for prototypes, such as custom designed fasteners or brackets. Another application of milling is the fabrication of tooling for other processes. For example, three-dimensional molds are typically milled. Milling is also commonly used as a secondary process to add or refine features on parts that were manufactured using a different process. Due to the high tolerances and surface finishes that milling can offer, it is ideal for adding precision features to a part whose basic shape has already been formed. Milling machines can be found in a variety of sizes and designs, yet they still possess the same main components that enable the workpiece to be moved in three directions relative to the tool. These components include the following: Base and column - The base of a milling machine is simply the platform that sits on the ground and supports the machine. A large column is attached to the base and connects to the other components. Table - The workpiece that will be milled is mounted onto a platform called the table, which typically has "T" shaped slots along its surface. The workpiece may be secured in a fixture called a vise, which is secured into the T-slots, or the workpiece can be clamped directly into these slots. The table provides the horizontal motion of the workpiece in the X-direction by sliding along a platform beneath it, called the saddle. Saddle - The saddle is the platform that supports the table and allows its longitudinal motion. The saddle is also able to move and provides the horizontal motion of the workpiece in the Y-direction by sliding transversely along another platform called the knee. Knee - The knee is the platform that supports the saddle and the table. In most milling machines, sometimes called column and knee milling machines, the knee provides the vertical motion (Z direction) of the workpiece. The knee can move vertically along the column, thus moving the workpiece vertically while the cutter remains stationary above it. However, in a fixed bed machine, the knee is fixed while the cutter moves vertically in order to cut the workpiece. The above components of the milling machine can be oriented either vertically or horizontally, creating two very distinct forms of milling machine. A horizontal milling machine uses a cutter that is mounted on a horizontal shaft, called an arbor, above the workpiece. For this reason, horizontal milling is sometimes referred to as arbor milling. The arbor is supported on one side by an over arm, which is connected to the column, and on the other side by the spindle. The spindle is driven by a motor and therefore rotates the arbor. During milling, the cutter rotates along a horizontal axis and the side of the cutter removes material from the workpiece. A vertical milling machine, on the other hand, orients the cutter vertically. The cutter is secured inside a piece called collets, which is then attached to the vertically oriented spindle. The spindle is located inside the milling head, which is attached to the column. The milling operations performed on a vertical milling machine remove material by using both the bottom and sides of the cutter. Cutting parameters Cutting feed - The distance that the cutting tool or workpiece advances during one revolution of the spindle and tool, measured in inches per revolution (IPR). In some operations the tool feeds into the workpiece and in others the workpiece feeds into the tool. For a multi-point tool, the cutting feed is also equal to the feed per tooth, measured in inches per tooth (IPT), multiplied by the number of teeth on the cutting tool. Cutting speed - The speed of the workpiece surface relative to the edge of the cutting tool during a cut, measured in surface feet per minute (SFM). Spindle speed - The rotational speed of the spindle and tool in revolutions per minute (RPM). The spindle speed is equal to the cutting speed divided by the circumference of the tool. Feed rate - The speed of the cutting tool's movement relative to the workpiece as the tool makes a cut. The feed rate is measured in inches per minute (IPM) and is the product of the cutting feed (IPR) and the spindle speed (RPM). Axial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along its axis in the workpiece as it makes a cut. A large axial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is typically machined in several passes as the tool moves to the specified axial depth of cut for each pass. Radial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along its radius in the workpiece as it makes a cut. If the radial depth of cut is less than the tool radius, the tool is only partially engaged and is making a peripheral cut. If the radial depth of cut is equal to the tool diameter, the cutting tool is fully engaged and is making a slot cut. A large radial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is often machined in several steps as the tool moves over the step-over distance, and makes another cut at the radial depth of cut Operations End milling - An end mill makes either peripheral or slot cuts, determined by the step-over distance, across the workpiece in order to machine a specified feature, such as a profile, slot, pocket, or even a complex surface contour. The depth of the feature may be machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes. Chamfer milling - A chamfer end mill makes a peripheral cut along an edge of the workpiece or a feature to create an angled surface, known as a chamfer. This chamfer, typically with a 45 degree angle, can be machined on either the exterior or interior of a part and can follow either a straight or curved path. Face milling - A face mill machines a flat surface of the workpiece in order to provide a smooth finish. The depth of the face, typically very small, may be machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes. SHETET METAL FABRICATION Sheet metal fabrication is a classification of manufacturing processes that shape a piece of sheet metal into the desired part through material removal and/or material deformation. Sheet metal, which acts as the workpiece in these processes, is one of the most common forms of raw material stock. The material thickness that classifies a workpiece as sheet metal is not clearly defined. However, sheet metal is generally considered to be a piece of stock between 0.006 and 0.25 inches thick. A piece of metal much thinner is considered to be "foil" and any thicker is referred to as a "plate". The thickness of a piece of sheet metal is often referred to as its gauge, a number typically ranging from 3 to 38. A higher gauge indicates a thinner piece of sheet metal, with exact dimensions that depend on the material. Sheet metal stock is available in a wide variety of materials, which include the following: Aluminum Brass Bronze Copper Magnesium Nickel Stainless steel Steel Tin Titanium Zinc Sheet metal can be cut, bent, and stretched into a nearly any shape. Material removal processes can create holes and cutouts in any 2D geometric shape. Deformation processes can bend the sheet numerous times to different angles or stretch the sheet to create complex contours. The size of sheet metal parts can range from a small washer or bracket, to midsize enclosures for home appliances, to large airplane wings. These parts are found in a variety of industries, such as aircraft, automotive, construction, consumer products, HVAC, and furniture. Sheet metal fabrication processes can mostly be placed into two categories - forming and cutting. Forming processes are those in which the applied force causes the material to plastically deform, but not to fail. Such processes are able to bend or stretch the sheet into the desired shape. Cutting processes are those in which the applied force causes the material to fail and separate, allowing the material to be cut or removed. Most cutting processes are performed by applying a great enough shearing force to separate the material, and are therefore sometimes referred to as shearing processes. Other cutting processes remove material by using heat or abrasion, instead of shearing forces. Forming Bending Roll forming Spinning Deep Drawing Stretch forming Cutting with shear Shearing Blanking Punching Cutting without shear Laser beam cutting Plasma cutting Water jet cutting GRINDING DIVISION Principle of grinding:- A machine tool operation which is mostly used to finish within close tolerances flat, cylindrical or other surfaces by abrasive action of high speed grinding wheel is known as Grinding. Most commonly used artificial abrasives are SILICON CARBIDE (Sic) ALUMINIUM OXIDE (Al2O3) Grinder available at NFL 1 Bench Grinder 2 Swing Frame Grinder 3 Magnetic Grinder. 1. Bench Grinder : Bench Grinder is used basically for sharpen the dull tool of the work shop. These are generally coarse or medium in nature. These grinders are smaller in size and can be easily fixed on a small bench. Generally two grinder wheels are fixed at both sides of the motor with different grain size. Depending on the grade of the grinding wheel it may be used for sharpening cutting tools such as lathe tools or drill bits. Alternatively it may be used to roughly shape metal prior to welding or fitting. A wire brush wheel or buffing wheels can be interchanged with the grinding wheels in order to clean or polish work-pieces. Bench Grinder 2. Swing Frame Grinder Swing frame grinder is used in those cases in which it is difficult or nearly impossible to move the job from its place again and again due to its weight of size. MAGNETIC GRINDER Magnetic grinders are used where more precious work is required. They can grind the workpiece within very close tolerances. This grinder is also used to grind the jobs with very less thickness because they can bend easily. Working of this grinder is directly coupled with electricity as the table of this grinder is act as magnet during the operation. With the supply of electricity the coil placed inside the table got magnetized and also the upper surface of table will act as magnet and hold the job rigidly so that the operation can b done easily. Magnetic Grinder SHAPER DIVISION Principle of shaping:- The job is held in a suitable device clamped rigidly on machine table. The tool is held in tool post on the ram of shaper. The ram reciprocates to and fro, and doing so cuts the material held in vice. The job is rigidly fixed on the machine table. The single point cutting tool held properly in the tool post is mounted on a reciprocating ram. The reciprocating motion of the ram is obtained by a quick return motion mechanism. As the ram reciprocates, the tool cuts the material during its forward stroke. During return, there is no cutting action and this stroke is called the idle stroke. The forward and return strokes constitute one operating cycle of the shaper. Base: The base is a heavy cast iron casting which is fixed to the shop floor. It supports the body frame and the entire load of the machine. The base absorbs and withstands vibrations and other forces which are likely to be induced during the shaping operations. Body (Pillar, Frame, and Column): It is mounted on the base and houses the drive mechanism compressing the main drives, the gear box and the quick return mechanism for the ram movement. The top of the body provides guide ways for the ram and its front provides the guide ways for the cross rail. Cross rail: The cross rail is mounted on the front of the body frame and can be moved up and down. The vertical movement of the cross rail permits jobs of different heights to be accommodated below the tool. Sliding along the cross rail is a saddle which carries the work table. Ram and tool head: The ram is driven back and forth in its slides by the slotted link mechanism. The back and forth movement of ram is called stroke and it can be adjusted according to the length of the work piece to be-machined. Shaping operations:- Horizontal, vertical & angular shaping. Slotting, internal shaping, irregular shaping. 3. Keyway cutting. 1. Horizontal shaping: - in this operation the work piece is held rigidly on table and the tool will reciprocates to and fro on its surface and cutting occurring in forward stock and reverse stock is idle one. 2. Vertical Shaping:- this is similar to horizontal operation but with the difference that the tool will move up and down instead of to and fro. Downward stock is cutting stock. 3. Angular shaping: - This is also a shaping operation in which the tool will be kept at an angle during its operation so that angular surface can be shape easily. WELDING DIVISION Introduction Welding is a fabrication process used to join materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, together. During welding, the pieces to be joined (the work pieces) are melted at the joining interface and usually a filler material is added to form a pool of molten material (weld pool) that solidifies to become a strong joint. In contrast, Soldering and Brazing do not involve melting the work piece but rather a lower melting point material is melted between the work pieces to bond them together. Types of Welding There are many different types of welding processes and in general they can be categorized as: Arc Welding: A welding power supply is used to create and maintain an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. In such welding processes the power supply could be AC or DC, the electrode could be consumable or non-consumable and a filler material may or may not be added. Common arc welding: 1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 2 Gas Metal Arc Welding 3 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Gas Welding: In this method a focused high temperature flame generated by gas combustion is used to melt the work pieces (and filler) together. The most common type of gas welding is Oxy-acetylene gas welding where acetylene is combusted in oxygen. Resistance Welding: Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing a high current (1000–100,000 A) through the resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces where that causes pools of molten metal to be formed at the weld area. The most common types of resistance welding are Spot-welding (using pointed electrodes) and Seam-welding (using wheel-shaped electrodes). Energy Beam Welding: In this method a focused high-energy beam (Laser beam or electron beam) is used to melt the work pieces and thus join them together. Welding Terminology There is some special technical vocabulary (or language) that is used in welding. The basic terms of the welding language include: Filler Material: When welding two pieces of metal together, we often have to leave a space between the joint. The material that is added to fill this space during the welding process is known as the filler material (or filler metal). Two types of filler metals are commonly used in welding are welding rods and welding electrodes. Welding Rod: The term welding rod refers to a form of filler metal that does not conduct an electric current during the welding process. The only purpose of a weld