05-09-2014, 02:49 PM
CPUPEN
[attachment=67680]
INTRODUCTION
FivepenpcshortlycalledasP-ISM(“Pen-style PersonalNetworking Gadget Package”),is nothingbutthenewdiscovery, whichisunderdeveloping stagebyNECCorporation.P-ISM isagadgetpackageincludingfivefunctions:aCPUpen,communication penwithacellular phone function, virtual keyboard, a very small projector, and a camera. P-ISM’s are connectedwithoneanotherthroughshort-range wirelesstechnology.Thewholesetisalso connectedtotheInternetthroughthecellularphonefunction.Thispersonalgadgetina
minimalistpenstyleenablestheultimateubiquitouscomputing
HISTORY
Theconceptualprototypeofthe"pen"computerwasbuiltin2003.Theprototypedevice, dubbedthe"P-ISM",wasa"Pen-stylePersonal Networking Gadget"createdin2003by JapanesetechnologycompanyNEC.TheP-ISMwasfeaturedatthe2003ITUTelecom Worldheldin Geneva,Switzerland.
Thedesigner ofthe5PenTechnology,”ToruIchihash”,saidthat”Indeveloping this conceptheaskedhimself–“WhatisthefutureofITwhen itissmall?”Thepen wasa logical choice. Healsowantedaproductthatyoucould touchandfeel.Further, theintent istoallow for anofficeanywhere.”
However,althoughaconceptualprototypeofthe"pen"computerwasbuiltin2003,such devicesarenotyetavailabletoconsumers
An articleaboutthedevicepublishedon theWaveReportwebsitein2004explains: AtITUTelecomWorldwegot asampleofanotherviewbyNEC.Itisbasedonthepenand calledP-ISM.Thisconceptis so radicalthatwewenttoTokyo to learn more.
“Thedesignconceptusesfivedifferent penstomake acomputer.OnepenisaCPU,another acamera,onecreatesavirtualkeyboard,anotherprojectsthevisualoutputandthusthe displayandanotheracommunicator(aphone).Allfivepenscanrestinaholdingblock whichrechargesthebatteriesandholdsthemassstorage.Eachpencommunicates wireless, possiblyBluetooth.”
APen-stylePersonalNetworkingGadgetPackage
CPUPEN
Thefunctionalityof the CPU is doneby oneof thepen.It is alsoknown as computingengine. ItconsistsofdualcoreprocessorembeddedinitanditworkswithWINDOWSoperation system.
Thecentralprocessingunit(CPU)is theportionof acomputersystemthatcarriesoutthe instructionsof acomputerprogram,andis theprimaryelementcarryingoutthecomputer's functions.Thecentralprocessingunitcarriesouteachinstructionof theprogramin sequence, toperformthebasicarithmetical,logical,and input/outputoperationsof thesystem.This
termhasbeen inuse in thecomputerindustryat leastsincetheearly1960s. Theform,design andimplementationof CPUshavechangeddramaticallysincetheearliestexamples,buttheir fundamentaloperationremainsmuchthesame.
EarlyCPUswerecustom-designed asapartofalarger,sometimesone-of-a-kind,and computer.However,thiscostly methodof designingcustomCPUsfor a particularapplication haslargelygivenwaytothedevelopmentofmass-producedprocessorsthataremadeforone ormanypurposes.Thisstandardization trendgenerallybeganintheeraofdiscretetransistor mainframesandminicomputersandhasrapidlyacceleratedwiththepopularizationofthe integrated circuit(IC).TheIChasallowedincreasinglycomplexCPUstobedesignedand manufactured totoleranceson the order of nanometers. Both theminiaturization and standardizationofCPUshaveincreasedthepresenceofthesedigitaldevicesinmodernlife far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern
microprocessorsappearineverythingfromautomobilestocellphonesandchildren'stoys
CONTROLUNIT
ThecontrolunitoftheCPUcontainscircuitrythatuseselectricalsignalstodirecttheentire computersystemtocarryout,storedprograminstructions.Thecontrolunitdoesnotexecute programinstructions;rather,itdirectsotherpartsofthesystemtodoso.Thecontrolunit mustcommunicatewithboth thearithmetic/logicunitand memory.
CPU,corememory,andexternalbusinterfaceofaDECPDP-8/I.madeofmedium-scale integratedcircuits.
ThedesigncomplexityofCPUsincreasedasvarioustechnologiesfacilitatedbuilding smaller andmorereliable electronicdevices. Thefirstsuchimprovementcame withthe adventofthe transistor.Transistorized CPUsduringthe1950sand1960snolongerhadtobebuiltoutof bulky,unreliable,andfragileswitchingelementslikevacuumtubesandelectricalrelays. WiththisimprovementmorecomplexandreliableCPUswerebuiltontooneorseveral printedcircuitboardscontainingdiscrete(individual)components.
Duringthisperiod,amethodofmanufacturing manytransistorsinacompact spacegained popularity. Theintegrated circuit(IC)allowedalargenumber oftransistorstobe manufacturedonasinglesemiconductor-baseddie,or"chip."Atfirstonlyverybasicnon- specializeddigitalcircuitssuchasNORgateswereminiaturizedintoICs.CPUsbasedupon these"buildingblock"ICsaregenerallyreferredtoas "small-scaleintegration"(SSI) devices. SSIICs,suchastheonesusedintheApolloguidancecomputer,usuallycontainedtransistor countsnumbering inmultiplesoften.TobuildanentireCPUoutofSSIICsrequired thousandsofindividual chips,butstillconsumedmuchlessspaceandpowerthanearlier discrete transistordesigns. Asmicroelectronictechnologyadvanced, anincreasingnumberof transistorswereplacedonICs,thusdecreasingthequantityofindividual ICsneededfora completeCPU.MSIandLSI(medium-andlarge-scale integration)ICsincreasedtransistor countstohundreds,and then thousands.
In1964 IBMintroduceditsSystem/360computerarchitecturewhichwasusedinaseriesof computersthatcouldrunthesameprograms withdifferentspeedandperformance. Thiswas significantatatimewhenmostelectroniccomputerswereincompatiblewithoneanother, even thosemadeby thesamemanufacturer.Tofacilitatethisimprovement,IBMutilizedthe
Conceptofamicroprogram(oftencalled"microcode"),whichstillseeswidespreadusagein modernCPUs.TheSystem/360architecturewassopopularthatitdominatedthemainframe computermarketfordecadesandleftalegacythatisstillcontinued bysimilarmodern computersliketheIBMzSeries.Inthesameyear(1964),DigitalEquipment Corporation (DEC)introduced anotherinfluential computeraimedatthescientificandresearchmarkets, thePDP-8.DEC wouldlaterintroducetheextremely popularPDP-11linethatoriginally was builtwithSSIICsbutwaseventuallyimplementedwithLSIcomponentsoncethesebecame
practical.InstarkcontrastwithitsSSIandMSIpredecessors,thefirstLSIimplementationof thePDP-11 containeda CPUcomposedof onlyfour LSI integratedcircuits
MICROPROCESSOR
Theintroductionofthemicroprocessor inthe1970ssignificantlyaffectedthedesignand implementation ofCPUs.Sincetheintroductionofthefirstcommerciallyavailable microprocessor(theIntel4004)in1970andthefirstwidelyusedmicroprocessor(theIntel
8080) in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processingunitimplementation methods.Mainframeandminicomputermanufacturers ofthe timelaunchedproprietaryICdevelopment programstoupgradetheiroldercomputer architectures, andeventuallyproducedinstructionsetcompatiblemicroprocessorsthatwere backward-compatiblewiththeirolderhardwareandsoftware.Combined withtheadventand eventualvastsuccessofthenowubiquitouspersonalcomputer,thetermCPUisnowapplied almostexclusivelytomicroprocessors.SeveralCPUscanbecombined inasingle processing chip.
PreviousgenerationsofCPUs were implementedasdiscretecomponentsandnumeroussmall integratedcircuits(ICs)ononeormorecircuitboards.Microprocessors,ontheotherhand, areCPUsmanufactured onaverysmallnumberofICs;usuallyjustone.Theoverallsmaller CPUsizeasaresultofbeingimplementedonasinglediemeansfasterswitchingtime becauseofphysicalfactorslikedecreasedgateparasiticcapacitance. Thishasallowed synchronousmicroprocessors tohaveclockratesrangingfromtensofmegahertztoseveral gigahertz’s.Additionally,astheabilitytoconstructexceedinglysmalltransistorsonanIC hasincreased,thecomplexityandnumber oftransistorsinasingleCPUhasincreased dramatically.ThiswidelyobservedtrendisdescribedbyMoore'slaw,whichhasprovento beafairlyaccuratepredictorof thegrowthof CPU(and otherIC) complexitytodate.
Whilethecomplexity, size,construction,andgeneral form ofCPUshavechangeddrastically overthepastsixtyyears,itisnotablethatthebasicdesignandfunctionhasnotchanged muchatall.AlmostallcommonCPUstodaycanbeveryaccurately describedasvon Neumannstored-programmachines.AstheaforementionedMoore'slawcontinuestohold true,concernshavearisenaboutthelimitsofintegratedcircuittransistortechnology.Extreme miniaturizationofelectronicgatesiscausingtheeffectsofphenomena likeelectromigration andsubthresholdleakagetobecomemuchmore
significant.Thesenewerconcernsare amongthemanyfactorscausingresearcherstoinvestigatenewmethodsofcomputingsuch asthequantumcomputer,aswellastoexpandtheusageofparallelismandothermethods thatextendthe usefulnessof theclassicalvon Neumannmodel
DESIGNAND IMPLEMENTATION
ThewayaCPUrepresentsnumbersisadesignchoicethataffectsthemostbasicwaysin whichthedevicefunctions.Someearlydigitalcomputersusedanelectrical modelofthe commondecimal(baseten)numeral systemtorepresent numbersinternally.Afewother computershaveused moreexoticnumeralsystemslike ternary(basethree).Nearlyall modernCPUsrepresent numbersinbinaryform,witheachdigitbeingrepresented bysome two-valuedphysicalquantitysuchas a"high"or "low" voltage.
MOS6502microprocessor inadualin-linepackage,anextremelypopular8-bitdesign. Relatedtonumberrepresentation isthesizeandprecisionofnumbersthataCPUcan represent.InthecaseofabinaryCPU,abitreferstoonesignificant placeinthenumbersa CPUdealswith.Thenumberofbits(ornumeralplaces)aCPUusestorepresent numbersis oftencalled"wordsize","bitwidth","datapath width",or"integer precision" whendealing withstrictlyintegernumbers (asopposedtoFloatingpoint).Thisnumberdiffersbetween architectures, andoftenwithindifferent partsoftheverysameCPU.Forexample,an8-bit CPUdealswitharangeofnumbersthatcanberepresented byeightbinarydigits(eachdigit havingtwopossiblevalues),thatis,28 or256discretenumbers.Ineffect,integersizesetsa hardwarelimiton therangeof integersthesoftwarerun by the CPUcan utilize.
IntegerrangecanalsoaffectthenumberoflocationsinmemorytheCPUcanaddress (locate).Forexample,ifabinaryCPUuses32bitstorepresent amemoryaddress,andeach memoryaddressrepresentsoneoctet(8bits),themaximumquantityofmemorythatCPU canaddressis232 octets,or4GiB.ThisisaverysimpleviewofCPUaddressspace,and manydesignsusemore complexaddressingmethodslikepaginginordertolocatemore memorythan theirintegerrangewouldallow witha flataddressspace.
Higherlevelsofintegerrangerequiremorestructurestodealwiththeadditional digits,and therefore morecomplexity, size, power usage, and general expense. It isnot at all uncommon,therefore,tosee4-or8-bitmicrocontrollers usedinmodernapplications,even thoughCPUswithmuchhigherrange(suchas16,32,64,even128-bit) areavailable. The simplermicrocontrollersareusuallycheaper,uselesspower,andthereforedissipateless heat,allofwhichcanbemajordesignconsiderationsforelectronic devices. However,in higher-end applications, thebenefitsaffordedbytheextrarange(mostoftentheadditional addressspace)aremoresignificant andoftenaffectdesignchoices.Togainsomeofthe advantages affordedbybothlowerandhigherbitlengths,manyCPUsaredesigned with differentbitwidthsfordifferentportionsofthedevice.Forexample,theIBMSystem/370 usedaCPUthatwasprimarily32bit,butitused128-bitprecisioninsideitsfloatingpoint unitstofacilitategreateraccuracyandrangeinfloatingpointnumbers.ManylaterCPU
designsusesimilarmixedbitwidth,especiallywhentheprocessor ismeant forgeneral- purposeusagewhereareasonablebalanceof integerandfloatingpointcapabilityis required
COMMUCATION PEN
P-ISM’sareconnected withoneanotherthroughshort-rangewirelesstechnology.Thewhole setisalsoconnected totheInternet throughthecellularphone function.Theyareconnected throughTri-wirelessmodes(Bluetooth,802.11B/G, andterabytesofdata,exceedingthe capacityof today’sharddisks.
Thisisveryeffectivebecausewecanabletoconnectwheneverweneedwithouthaving wires.Theyareusedatthefrequency bandof2.4GHzISM(althoughtheyusedifferent accessmechanisms).Bluetoothmechanism isusedforexchangingsignalstatusinformation between two devices. This techniques have been developed that do not require communication between the two devices (such as Blue tooth’s Adaptive Frequency Hopping),themostefficientandcomprehensivesolutionforthemostseriousproblemscan beaccomplished bysiliconvendors.Theycanimplement informationexchangecapabilities within thedesignsof theBluetooth.
VIRTUAL KEYBOARD
TheVirtualLaserKeyboard(VKB)istheULTIMATEnewgadget forPCusers.TheVKB emitslaserontothedeskwhereitlookslikethekeyboardhavingQWERTYarrangementof keysi.e.,itusesalaserbeamtogenerate afull-sizeperfectlyoperatinglaserkeyboard that smoothlyconnectstoofPCandmostofthehandhelddevices.Aswetypeonthelase
projection,itanalyseswhatwearetypingaccordingtotheco-ordinatesof thelocation
DIGITAL CAMERA
Thedigitalcameraisintheshapeofpen.Itisusefulinvideorecording, videoconferencing, simplyit is calledas webcam.Itis alsoconnectedwithotherdevicesthroughBluetooth.Itis a360degreesvisualcommunication device.Thisterminalwillenableustoknowaboutthe surroundingatmosphereandgrouptogroupcommunicationwitharounddisplayanda centralsuperwideanglecamera.
MIRRORLESSINTERCHANGABLELENSCAMERA
Inlate2008anewtypeofcamera emerged,combining thelarger sensorsandinterchangeable lensesofDSLRswiththelivepreviewviewingsystemofcompactcameras,eitherthroughan electronicviewfinderorontherearLCD.Thesearesimplerandmore compactthanDSLRs duetotheremovalofthemirrorbox,andtypicallyemulatethehandlingandergonomics of eitherDSLRsorcompacts.Thesystemisuseby MicroFourThirds,borrowingcomponents from theFourThirdsDSLR systems. TheRicoh GXRof2009putsthe sensorandother electroniccomponentsin theinterchangeablesensor lensunitratherthaninthecamerabody.
Thefirstinterchangeable3DlensLumixG12.5mm/F12(H-FT012)hasbeenannouncedby
Panasonic.Itusetwolensesquiteclosetogetherinonelensmoduleadaptorandrecordboth
3Dand2Dpicturesaltogether.Thelensmoduleiscompatible withPanasonicLumixDMC- GH2.
LED PROJECTOR
TheroleofmonitoristakenbyLEDProjectorwhichprojects onthescreen.Thesizeofthe projectorisofA4size.Ithastheapproximate resolutioncapacityof1024X768.Thusitis gives moreclarityandgood picture.Avideoprojectoris adevicethatreceivesa videosignalandprojectsthecorrespondingimage onaprojection screenusingalenssystem.Allvideoprojectorsuseaverybright lightto project theimage,andmostmodern onescancorrect anycurves, blurriness, andother inconsistenciesthroughmanualsettings.Videoprojectorsarewidelyusedforconference roompresentations,classroomtraining,hometheatreandliveeventsapplications.Projectors
arewidelyusedinmanyschoolsandothereducational settings,connectedtoaninteractive whiteboardtointeractivelyteachpupils
[attachment=67680]
INTRODUCTION
FivepenpcshortlycalledasP-ISM(“Pen-style PersonalNetworking Gadget Package”),is nothingbutthenewdiscovery, whichisunderdeveloping stagebyNECCorporation.P-ISM isagadgetpackageincludingfivefunctions:aCPUpen,communication penwithacellular phone function, virtual keyboard, a very small projector, and a camera. P-ISM’s are connectedwithoneanotherthroughshort-range wirelesstechnology.Thewholesetisalso connectedtotheInternetthroughthecellularphonefunction.Thispersonalgadgetina
minimalistpenstyleenablestheultimateubiquitouscomputing
HISTORY
Theconceptualprototypeofthe"pen"computerwasbuiltin2003.Theprototypedevice, dubbedthe"P-ISM",wasa"Pen-stylePersonal Networking Gadget"createdin2003by JapanesetechnologycompanyNEC.TheP-ISMwasfeaturedatthe2003ITUTelecom Worldheldin Geneva,Switzerland.
Thedesigner ofthe5PenTechnology,”ToruIchihash”,saidthat”Indeveloping this conceptheaskedhimself–“WhatisthefutureofITwhen itissmall?”Thepen wasa logical choice. Healsowantedaproductthatyoucould touchandfeel.Further, theintent istoallow for anofficeanywhere.”
However,althoughaconceptualprototypeofthe"pen"computerwasbuiltin2003,such devicesarenotyetavailabletoconsumers
An articleaboutthedevicepublishedon theWaveReportwebsitein2004explains: AtITUTelecomWorldwegot asampleofanotherviewbyNEC.Itisbasedonthepenand calledP-ISM.Thisconceptis so radicalthatwewenttoTokyo to learn more.
“Thedesignconceptusesfivedifferent penstomake acomputer.OnepenisaCPU,another acamera,onecreatesavirtualkeyboard,anotherprojectsthevisualoutputandthusthe displayandanotheracommunicator(aphone).Allfivepenscanrestinaholdingblock whichrechargesthebatteriesandholdsthemassstorage.Eachpencommunicates wireless, possiblyBluetooth.”
APen-stylePersonalNetworkingGadgetPackage
CPUPEN
Thefunctionalityof the CPU is doneby oneof thepen.It is alsoknown as computingengine. ItconsistsofdualcoreprocessorembeddedinitanditworkswithWINDOWSoperation system.
Thecentralprocessingunit(CPU)is theportionof acomputersystemthatcarriesoutthe instructionsof acomputerprogram,andis theprimaryelementcarryingoutthecomputer's functions.Thecentralprocessingunitcarriesouteachinstructionof theprogramin sequence, toperformthebasicarithmetical,logical,and input/outputoperationsof thesystem.This
termhasbeen inuse in thecomputerindustryat leastsincetheearly1960s. Theform,design andimplementationof CPUshavechangeddramaticallysincetheearliestexamples,buttheir fundamentaloperationremainsmuchthesame.
EarlyCPUswerecustom-designed asapartofalarger,sometimesone-of-a-kind,and computer.However,thiscostly methodof designingcustomCPUsfor a particularapplication haslargelygivenwaytothedevelopmentofmass-producedprocessorsthataremadeforone ormanypurposes.Thisstandardization trendgenerallybeganintheeraofdiscretetransistor mainframesandminicomputersandhasrapidlyacceleratedwiththepopularizationofthe integrated circuit(IC).TheIChasallowedincreasinglycomplexCPUstobedesignedand manufactured totoleranceson the order of nanometers. Both theminiaturization and standardizationofCPUshaveincreasedthepresenceofthesedigitaldevicesinmodernlife far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern
microprocessorsappearineverythingfromautomobilestocellphonesandchildren'stoys
CONTROLUNIT
ThecontrolunitoftheCPUcontainscircuitrythatuseselectricalsignalstodirecttheentire computersystemtocarryout,storedprograminstructions.Thecontrolunitdoesnotexecute programinstructions;rather,itdirectsotherpartsofthesystemtodoso.Thecontrolunit mustcommunicatewithboth thearithmetic/logicunitand memory.
CPU,corememory,andexternalbusinterfaceofaDECPDP-8/I.madeofmedium-scale integratedcircuits.
ThedesigncomplexityofCPUsincreasedasvarioustechnologiesfacilitatedbuilding smaller andmorereliable electronicdevices. Thefirstsuchimprovementcame withthe adventofthe transistor.Transistorized CPUsduringthe1950sand1960snolongerhadtobebuiltoutof bulky,unreliable,andfragileswitchingelementslikevacuumtubesandelectricalrelays. WiththisimprovementmorecomplexandreliableCPUswerebuiltontooneorseveral printedcircuitboardscontainingdiscrete(individual)components.
Duringthisperiod,amethodofmanufacturing manytransistorsinacompact spacegained popularity. Theintegrated circuit(IC)allowedalargenumber oftransistorstobe manufacturedonasinglesemiconductor-baseddie,or"chip."Atfirstonlyverybasicnon- specializeddigitalcircuitssuchasNORgateswereminiaturizedintoICs.CPUsbasedupon these"buildingblock"ICsaregenerallyreferredtoas "small-scaleintegration"(SSI) devices. SSIICs,suchastheonesusedintheApolloguidancecomputer,usuallycontainedtransistor countsnumbering inmultiplesoften.TobuildanentireCPUoutofSSIICsrequired thousandsofindividual chips,butstillconsumedmuchlessspaceandpowerthanearlier discrete transistordesigns. Asmicroelectronictechnologyadvanced, anincreasingnumberof transistorswereplacedonICs,thusdecreasingthequantityofindividual ICsneededfora completeCPU.MSIandLSI(medium-andlarge-scale integration)ICsincreasedtransistor countstohundreds,and then thousands.
In1964 IBMintroduceditsSystem/360computerarchitecturewhichwasusedinaseriesof computersthatcouldrunthesameprograms withdifferentspeedandperformance. Thiswas significantatatimewhenmostelectroniccomputerswereincompatiblewithoneanother, even thosemadeby thesamemanufacturer.Tofacilitatethisimprovement,IBMutilizedthe
Conceptofamicroprogram(oftencalled"microcode"),whichstillseeswidespreadusagein modernCPUs.TheSystem/360architecturewassopopularthatitdominatedthemainframe computermarketfordecadesandleftalegacythatisstillcontinued bysimilarmodern computersliketheIBMzSeries.Inthesameyear(1964),DigitalEquipment Corporation (DEC)introduced anotherinfluential computeraimedatthescientificandresearchmarkets, thePDP-8.DEC wouldlaterintroducetheextremely popularPDP-11linethatoriginally was builtwithSSIICsbutwaseventuallyimplementedwithLSIcomponentsoncethesebecame
practical.InstarkcontrastwithitsSSIandMSIpredecessors,thefirstLSIimplementationof thePDP-11 containeda CPUcomposedof onlyfour LSI integratedcircuits
MICROPROCESSOR
Theintroductionofthemicroprocessor inthe1970ssignificantlyaffectedthedesignand implementation ofCPUs.Sincetheintroductionofthefirstcommerciallyavailable microprocessor(theIntel4004)in1970andthefirstwidelyusedmicroprocessor(theIntel
8080) in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processingunitimplementation methods.Mainframeandminicomputermanufacturers ofthe timelaunchedproprietaryICdevelopment programstoupgradetheiroldercomputer architectures, andeventuallyproducedinstructionsetcompatiblemicroprocessorsthatwere backward-compatiblewiththeirolderhardwareandsoftware.Combined withtheadventand eventualvastsuccessofthenowubiquitouspersonalcomputer,thetermCPUisnowapplied almostexclusivelytomicroprocessors.SeveralCPUscanbecombined inasingle processing chip.
PreviousgenerationsofCPUs were implementedasdiscretecomponentsandnumeroussmall integratedcircuits(ICs)ononeormorecircuitboards.Microprocessors,ontheotherhand, areCPUsmanufactured onaverysmallnumberofICs;usuallyjustone.Theoverallsmaller CPUsizeasaresultofbeingimplementedonasinglediemeansfasterswitchingtime becauseofphysicalfactorslikedecreasedgateparasiticcapacitance. Thishasallowed synchronousmicroprocessors tohaveclockratesrangingfromtensofmegahertztoseveral gigahertz’s.Additionally,astheabilitytoconstructexceedinglysmalltransistorsonanIC hasincreased,thecomplexityandnumber oftransistorsinasingleCPUhasincreased dramatically.ThiswidelyobservedtrendisdescribedbyMoore'slaw,whichhasprovento beafairlyaccuratepredictorof thegrowthof CPU(and otherIC) complexitytodate.
Whilethecomplexity, size,construction,andgeneral form ofCPUshavechangeddrastically overthepastsixtyyears,itisnotablethatthebasicdesignandfunctionhasnotchanged muchatall.AlmostallcommonCPUstodaycanbeveryaccurately describedasvon Neumannstored-programmachines.AstheaforementionedMoore'slawcontinuestohold true,concernshavearisenaboutthelimitsofintegratedcircuittransistortechnology.Extreme miniaturizationofelectronicgatesiscausingtheeffectsofphenomena likeelectromigration andsubthresholdleakagetobecomemuchmore
significant.Thesenewerconcernsare amongthemanyfactorscausingresearcherstoinvestigatenewmethodsofcomputingsuch asthequantumcomputer,aswellastoexpandtheusageofparallelismandothermethods thatextendthe usefulnessof theclassicalvon Neumannmodel
DESIGNAND IMPLEMENTATION
ThewayaCPUrepresentsnumbersisadesignchoicethataffectsthemostbasicwaysin whichthedevicefunctions.Someearlydigitalcomputersusedanelectrical modelofthe commondecimal(baseten)numeral systemtorepresent numbersinternally.Afewother computershaveused moreexoticnumeralsystemslike ternary(basethree).Nearlyall modernCPUsrepresent numbersinbinaryform,witheachdigitbeingrepresented bysome two-valuedphysicalquantitysuchas a"high"or "low" voltage.
MOS6502microprocessor inadualin-linepackage,anextremelypopular8-bitdesign. Relatedtonumberrepresentation isthesizeandprecisionofnumbersthataCPUcan represent.InthecaseofabinaryCPU,abitreferstoonesignificant placeinthenumbersa CPUdealswith.Thenumberofbits(ornumeralplaces)aCPUusestorepresent numbersis oftencalled"wordsize","bitwidth","datapath width",or"integer precision" whendealing withstrictlyintegernumbers (asopposedtoFloatingpoint).Thisnumberdiffersbetween architectures, andoftenwithindifferent partsoftheverysameCPU.Forexample,an8-bit CPUdealswitharangeofnumbersthatcanberepresented byeightbinarydigits(eachdigit havingtwopossiblevalues),thatis,28 or256discretenumbers.Ineffect,integersizesetsa hardwarelimiton therangeof integersthesoftwarerun by the CPUcan utilize.
IntegerrangecanalsoaffectthenumberoflocationsinmemorytheCPUcanaddress (locate).Forexample,ifabinaryCPUuses32bitstorepresent amemoryaddress,andeach memoryaddressrepresentsoneoctet(8bits),themaximumquantityofmemorythatCPU canaddressis232 octets,or4GiB.ThisisaverysimpleviewofCPUaddressspace,and manydesignsusemore complexaddressingmethodslikepaginginordertolocatemore memorythan theirintegerrangewouldallow witha flataddressspace.
Higherlevelsofintegerrangerequiremorestructurestodealwiththeadditional digits,and therefore morecomplexity, size, power usage, and general expense. It isnot at all uncommon,therefore,tosee4-or8-bitmicrocontrollers usedinmodernapplications,even thoughCPUswithmuchhigherrange(suchas16,32,64,even128-bit) areavailable. The simplermicrocontrollersareusuallycheaper,uselesspower,andthereforedissipateless heat,allofwhichcanbemajordesignconsiderationsforelectronic devices. However,in higher-end applications, thebenefitsaffordedbytheextrarange(mostoftentheadditional addressspace)aremoresignificant andoftenaffectdesignchoices.Togainsomeofthe advantages affordedbybothlowerandhigherbitlengths,manyCPUsaredesigned with differentbitwidthsfordifferentportionsofthedevice.Forexample,theIBMSystem/370 usedaCPUthatwasprimarily32bit,butitused128-bitprecisioninsideitsfloatingpoint unitstofacilitategreateraccuracyandrangeinfloatingpointnumbers.ManylaterCPU
designsusesimilarmixedbitwidth,especiallywhentheprocessor ismeant forgeneral- purposeusagewhereareasonablebalanceof integerandfloatingpointcapabilityis required
COMMUCATION PEN
P-ISM’sareconnected withoneanotherthroughshort-rangewirelesstechnology.Thewhole setisalsoconnected totheInternet throughthecellularphone function.Theyareconnected throughTri-wirelessmodes(Bluetooth,802.11B/G, andterabytesofdata,exceedingthe capacityof today’sharddisks.
Thisisveryeffectivebecausewecanabletoconnectwheneverweneedwithouthaving wires.Theyareusedatthefrequency bandof2.4GHzISM(althoughtheyusedifferent accessmechanisms).Bluetoothmechanism isusedforexchangingsignalstatusinformation between two devices. This techniques have been developed that do not require communication between the two devices (such as Blue tooth’s Adaptive Frequency Hopping),themostefficientandcomprehensivesolutionforthemostseriousproblemscan beaccomplished bysiliconvendors.Theycanimplement informationexchangecapabilities within thedesignsof theBluetooth.
VIRTUAL KEYBOARD
TheVirtualLaserKeyboard(VKB)istheULTIMATEnewgadget forPCusers.TheVKB emitslaserontothedeskwhereitlookslikethekeyboardhavingQWERTYarrangementof keysi.e.,itusesalaserbeamtogenerate afull-sizeperfectlyoperatinglaserkeyboard that smoothlyconnectstoofPCandmostofthehandhelddevices.Aswetypeonthelase
projection,itanalyseswhatwearetypingaccordingtotheco-ordinatesof thelocation
DIGITAL CAMERA
Thedigitalcameraisintheshapeofpen.Itisusefulinvideorecording, videoconferencing, simplyit is calledas webcam.Itis alsoconnectedwithotherdevicesthroughBluetooth.Itis a360degreesvisualcommunication device.Thisterminalwillenableustoknowaboutthe surroundingatmosphereandgrouptogroupcommunicationwitharounddisplayanda centralsuperwideanglecamera.
MIRRORLESSINTERCHANGABLELENSCAMERA
Inlate2008anewtypeofcamera emerged,combining thelarger sensorsandinterchangeable lensesofDSLRswiththelivepreviewviewingsystemofcompactcameras,eitherthroughan electronicviewfinderorontherearLCD.Thesearesimplerandmore compactthanDSLRs duetotheremovalofthemirrorbox,andtypicallyemulatethehandlingandergonomics of eitherDSLRsorcompacts.Thesystemisuseby MicroFourThirds,borrowingcomponents from theFourThirdsDSLR systems. TheRicoh GXRof2009putsthe sensorandother electroniccomponentsin theinterchangeablesensor lensunitratherthaninthecamerabody.
Thefirstinterchangeable3DlensLumixG12.5mm/F12(H-FT012)hasbeenannouncedby
Panasonic.Itusetwolensesquiteclosetogetherinonelensmoduleadaptorandrecordboth
3Dand2Dpicturesaltogether.Thelensmoduleiscompatible withPanasonicLumixDMC- GH2.
LED PROJECTOR
TheroleofmonitoristakenbyLEDProjectorwhichprojects onthescreen.Thesizeofthe projectorisofA4size.Ithastheapproximate resolutioncapacityof1024X768.Thusitis gives moreclarityandgood picture.Avideoprojectoris adevicethatreceivesa videosignalandprojectsthecorrespondingimage onaprojection screenusingalenssystem.Allvideoprojectorsuseaverybright lightto project theimage,andmostmodern onescancorrect anycurves, blurriness, andother inconsistenciesthroughmanualsettings.Videoprojectorsarewidelyusedforconference roompresentations,classroomtraining,hometheatreandliveeventsapplications.Projectors
arewidelyusedinmanyschoolsandothereducational settings,connectedtoaninteractive whiteboardtointeractivelyteachpupils