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DayanandaSaraswati was born on 12 February in 1824 in a Brahmin family[13] in Tankara, near Morbi in the Kathiawadregion (now Rajkot district of Gujarat). His original name was Mool Shankar because he was born in DhanuRashi and MoolNakshatra. His birthday is celebrated in Falguna Krishna Dashamitithi (the 10th day of waning moon in the month of PurnimantaFalguna). He belonged to MoolNakshatra and his birth tithi was PurnimantaFalguna Krishna Dashami then his birth date should be Tuesday, 24 February 1824 according to astrological calculations. His father's name was KarshanjiLalji Tiwari and mother's name was Yashodabai. Theirs was a Brahmin family. A tax collector, his father was a rich, prosperous and influential person. He was the head of an eminent Brahmin family of the village. When Mool Shankar was eight years old, YajnopavitaSanskara, or the investiture with thread of the "twice-born" were performed. His father was a follower of Shiva and taught DayanandaSaraswati the ways to impress the Lord. Dayananda was also told the importance of keeping fasts. On the occasion of Shivratri, Dayananda had to sit awake the whole night in obedience to Lord Shiva. One such night, he saw a mouse eating the offerings to the God and running over the idol's body. After seeing this, he questioned himself, if the God could not defend himself against a little mouse then how could he be the savior of the massive world.
(Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born on 17 October 1817 to a Noble Syed family in Delhi, which was the capital of the Mughal Empire. His family ancestral roots is said to have come from Arabia,[dubious – discuss][9] and then moved to Herat of Afghanistan[10] in the ruling times of Mughal emperor Akbar–I. Many generations of his family had since been highly connected with the administrative position in Mughal Empire. His maternal grandfather KhwajaFariduddin served as Wazir (lit. Minister) in the court ofEmperor Akbar–II.[11] His paternal grandfather Syed Hadi held a mansab (lit. General)– a high-ranking administrative position and honorary name of Jawwad Ali Khan in the court of Emperor Alamgir II. Sir Syed's father Mir Muhammad Muttaqi was personally close to Emperor Akbar–II and served as his personal adviser.[12])
However, Syed Ahmad Khan was born at a time when rebellious governors, regional insurrections aided and led by the East India Company, and the British Empire had diminished the extent and power of the Mughal state, reducing its monarch to figurehead. With his elder brother Syed Muhammad Khan, Sir Syed was raised in a large house in a wealthy area of the city. They were raised in strict accordance with Mughal noble traditions and exposed to politics. Their mother Aziz-un-Nisa played a formative role in Sir Syed's early life, raising him with rigid discipline with a strong emphasis on modern education.[13] Sir Syed was taught to read and understand theHoly Qur'an by a female tutor, which was unusual at the time. He received an education traditional to Muslim nobility in Delhi. Under the charge of Hamiduddin, Sir Syed was trained in Persian, Arabic, Urdu and orthodox religious subjects.[citation needed] He read the works of Muslim scholars and writers such as Sahbai, Rumi andGhalib.[citation needed] Other tutors instructed him in mathematics, astronomy and Islamic jurisprudence.[11][14] Sir Syed was also adept at swimming, wrestling and other sports. He took an active part in the Mughal court's cultural activities.[15]
His elder brother founded the city's first printing press in the Urdu language along with the journal Sayyad-ul-Akbar.[citation needed] Sir Syed pursued the study of medicinefor several years but did not complete the course.[11] Until the death of his father in 1838, Sir Syed had lived a life customary for an affluent young Muslim noble.[11]Upon his father's death, he inherited the titles of his grandfather and father and was awarded the title of Arif Jung by the emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.[16] Financial difficulties put an end to Sir Syed's formal education, although he continued to study in private, using books on a variety of subjects.[15] Sir Syed assumed editorship of his brother's journal and rejected offers of employment from the Mughal court.[15]
Ram Mohan Roy was born in Radhanagar, Arambagh subdivision, Hooghly District, Bengal Presidency, in 1772, into theRarhi Brahmin caste.[3] His family background displayed religious diversity — his father Ramkanta was a Vaishnavite, while his mother Tarinidevi was from a Shivaite family. This was unusual, for Vaishanavites commonly marry Shaivites at the time.
"Thus one parent prepared him for the occupation of a scholar, the sastrin, the other secured for him all the worldly advantage needed to launch a career in the laukik or worldly sphere of public administration. Torn between these two parental ideals from early childhood, Ram Mohan vacillated the rest of his life, moving from one to the other and back.[4]
Ram Mohan Roy was married three times, which fell in the strict framework of his polygamous and caste customs. His first wife died early in his childhood. He conceived two sons, Radhaprasad in 1800 and Ramaprasad in 1812 with his second wife, who died in 1824. Roy's third wife outlived him.
Roy's early education was controversial. The common version is "Ram Mohan started his formal education in the villagepathshala where he learned Bengali and some Sanskrit and Persian. Later he is said to have studied Persian and Arabic in a madrasa in Patna and after that he was sent to Benares (Kashi) for learning the intricacies of Sanskrit and Hindu scripture, including the Vedas and Upanishads. The dates of his sojourn in both these places is uncertain. However, we will go by the commonly held belief that he was sent to Patna when he was nine years old and two years later to Benares."[4]
His faithful contemporary biographer writes,"Ram Mohan with his new found madrasa knowledge of Arabic also tasted the fruit forbidden to Brahmins of Quran and was converted to its strict monotheism. Ram Mohan's mother Tarini Devi was scandalised and packed her son off to Benares (to study Sanskrit and Vedas) before he could take the irrevocable step. In Benares, Ram Mohan's rebellion continued and he persisted in interpreting the Upanishads through the Holy Quran's monotheist strictures especially against idolatry. Benares, the spiritual seat of traditional Hinduism, was awash with temples to the billion gods of Hindu pantheon, and Ram Mohan would not complete his formal Vedantic education there. He instead traveled widely (not much is known of where he went, but he is said to have extensively studied Buddhism at this time) to eventually return to his family around 1794 when a search party sent by his father tracked him down to Benares in the company of some Buddhists with similar notions. Between 1794 and 1795 Ram Mohan stayed with his family attending the family zamindari holdings. There was considerable friction in the family between Ram Mohan and his father, who died about 1796, leaving some property to be divided amongst his sons.
Nehru led newly independent India from 1947 to 1964, during its first years of independence from British rule. Both the United States and the Soviet Union competed to make India an ally throughout the Cold War. Nehru also maintained good relations with the British Empire. Under the London Declaration, India agreed that, when it became a republic in January 1950, it would join the Commonwealth of Nations and accept the British monarch as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth." The other nations of the Commonwealth recognised India's continuing membership of the association. The reaction back home was favourable; only the far-left and the far-right criticised Nehru's decision.
On the international scene, Nehru was a champion of pacifism and a strong supporter of the United Nations. He pioneered the policy of non-alignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement of nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs of nations led by the US and the USSR. Recognising the People's Republic of China soon after its founding (while most of the Western bloc continued relations with theRepublic of China), Nehru argued for its inclusion in the United Nations and refused to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conflict with Korea.[81] He sought to establish warm and friendly relations with China in 1950, and hoped to act as an intermediary to bridge the gulf and tensions between the communist states and the Western bloc.
Nehru had promised in 1948 to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir under the auspices of the UN. Kashmir was a disputed territory between India and Pakistan, the two havinggone to war with each other over the state in 1948. However, as Pakistan failed to pull back troops in accordance with the UN resolution and as Nehru grew increasingly wary of the UN, he declined to hold a plebiscite in 1953. His policies on Kashmir and the integration of the state into India was frequently defended in front of the United Nations by his aide, Krishna Menon, a brilliant diplomat who earned a reputation in India for his passionate speeches.
Nehru receiving US PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower at Parliament House, 1959
Nehru, while a pacifist, was not blind to the political and geostrategic reality of India in 1947. While laying the foundation stone of the National Defence Academy (India) in 1949, he stated: "We, who for generations had talked about and attempted in everything a peaceful way and practised non-violence, should now be, in a sense, glorifying our army, navy and air force. It means a lot. Though it is odd, yet it simply reflects the oddness of life. Though life is logical, we have to face all contingencies, and unless we are prepared to face them, we will go under. There was no greater prince of peace and apostle of non-violence than Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the Nation, whom we have lost, but yet, he said it was better to take the sword than to surrender, fail or run away. We cannot live carefree assuming that we are safe. Human nature is such. We cannot take the risks and risk our hard-won freedom. We have to be prepared with all modern defence methods and a well-equipped army, navy and air force."[82][83]
Nehru envisioned the developing of nuclear weapons and established the Atomic Energy Commission of India (AEC) in 1948.[84] Nehru also called Dr. Homi J. Bhabha, a nuclear physicist, who was entrusted with complete authority over all nuclear related affairs and programs and answered only to Nehru himself.[84] Indian nuclear policy was set by unwritten personal understanding between Nehru and Bhabha.[84] Nehru famously said to Bhabha, "Professor Bhabha take care of Physics, leave international relation to me".[84] From the outset in 1948, Nehru had high ambition to develop this program to stand against the industrialised states and the basis of this program was to establish an Indian nuclear weapons capability as part of India's regional superiority to other South-Asian states, most particularly Pakistan.[84]
Nehru also told Bhabha, and later it was told by Bhabha to Raja Rammanna that,