09-05-2013, 12:38 PM
History of Groundnut
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INTRODUCTION:
Seed is the basic input in agriculture.
The quality of seed used by farmers determines the status of agriculture they practice.
However, for maximum gain in productivity the use of both improved varieties and improved integrated crop management practices are required.
Not only do they contribute to increasing productivity individually, but they also act synergistically.
Seed of improved varieties is a costly input; more so in the case of groundnut, where the non-availability of improved variety seed is a major constraint in most of the groundnut growing countries.
HISTORY
The domesticated groundnut is an amphidiploid or allotetraploid, meaning that it has two sets of chromosomes from two different species, thought to be A. duranensis and A. ipaensis.
These likely combined in the wild to form the tetraploid species A. monticola, which gave rise to the domesticated groundnutThis domestication might have taken place in Paraguay or Bolivia, where the wildest strains grow today. Many pre-Columbian cultures, such as theMoche, depicted groundnuts in their art.Archeologists have dated the oldest specimens to about 7,600 years, found in Peru.Cultivation spread as far as Mesoamerica, where the Spanish conquistadors found the tlalcacahuatl (Nahuatl = "groundnut", whence Mexican Spanish, cacahuate and French, cacahuète) being offered for sale in the marketplace of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). The plant was later spread worldwide by European traders.Although the groundnut was mainly a garden crop for much of the colonial period of North America, it was mostly used as animal feed stock until the 1930s. In the United States, a US Department of Agriculture program (see below) to encourage agricultural production and human consumption of groundnuts was instituted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
CULTIVATION
The orange-veined, yellow-petaled, pea-like flower of the Arachis hypogaea is borne in axillary clusters above ground. Following self-pollination, the flowers fade and wither. The stalk at the base of the ovary, called the pedicel, elongates rapidly, and turns downward to bury the fruits several inches in the ground, where they complete their development. The entire plant, including most of the roots, is removed from the soil during harvesting[.The fruits have wrinkled shells that are constricted between pairs of the one to four (usually two) seeds per pod.
PRODUCTION
China leads in production of groundnuts, having a share of about 41.5% of overall world production, followed by India (18.2%) and the United States of America (6.8%). In Europe, the leading producer is Greece, at roughly 2000 tons per year
Cultivars in the United States
Thousands of groundnut cultivars are grown, with four major cultivar groups being the most popular: Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia. There are also Tennessee red and white groups. Certain cultivar groups are preferred for particular uses because of differences in flavor, oil content, size, shape, and disease resistance. For many uses, the different cultivars are interchangeable. Most groundnuts marketed in the shell are of the Virginia type, along with some Valencias selected for large size and the attractive appearance of the shell. Spanish groundnuts are used mostly for groundnut candy, salted nuts, and groundnut butter. Most Runners are used to make groundnut butter
SPANISH GROUP
The small Spanish types are grown in South Africa, and in the southwestern and southeastern US. Prior to 1940, 90% of the groundnuts grown in Georgia, USA, were Spanish types, but the trend since then has been larger-seeded, higher-yielding, more disease-resistant cultivars. Spanish groundnuts have a higher oil content than other types of groundnuts, and in the US are now primarily grown in New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.
VIRGINIA GROUP
Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and parts of Georgia. They are increasing in popularity due to demand for large groundnuts for processing, particularly The large seeded Virginia group groundnuts are grown in the US states of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, for salting, confections, and roasting in the shells.
USES
VARIED APPLICATIONS:
Groundnuts have many uses. They can be eaten raw, used in recipes, made into solvents and oils, medicines, textile materials, and groundnut butter, as well as many other uses. Popular confections made from groundnuts include salted groundnuts, groundnut butter (sandwiches, groundnut candy bars, groundnut butter cookies, and cups), groundnut brittle, and shelled nuts (plain/roasted). Salted groundnuts are usually roasted in oil and packed in retail-size plastic bags or hermetically sealed cans. Dry roasted salted groundnuts are also marketed in significant quantities. Groundnuts are often a major ingredient in mixed nuts because of their relative cost compared to Brazil nuts, cashews, walnuts, and so on. Although groundnut butter has been a tradition on camping trips and the like because of its high protein content and because it resists spoiling for long periods of time, the primary use of groundnut butter is in the home. Large quantities are also used in the commercial manufacture of sandwiches, candy, and bakery products. Boiled groundnuts are a preparation of raw, unshelled green groundnuts boiled in brine and often eaten as a snack. More recently, fried groundnut recipes have emerged – allowing both shell and nut to be eaten. Groundnuts are also used in a wide variety of other areas, such as cosmetics, nitroglycerin, plastics, dyes and paints.
GROUNDNUT OIL
Groundnut oil is often used in cooking, because it has a mild flavor and a relatively high smoke point. Due to its high monounsaturated content, it is considered more healthy than saturated oils, and is resistant to rancidity. There are several types of groundnut oil including: aromatic roasted groundnut oil, refined groundnut oil, extra virgin or cold pressed groundnut oil and groundnut extract. In the United States, refined groundnut oil is exempt from allergen labeling laws.
GROUNDNUT FLOUR
Groundnut flour is lower in fat than groundnut butter, and is popular with chefs because its high protein content makes it suitable as a flavor enhancer. Groundnut flour is used as a gluten-free solution.
BOILED GROUNDNUTS
Boiled groundnuts are a popular snack in the southern United States, as well as in India, China and West Africa.
DRY ROASTED GROUNDNUTS
Dry groundnuts can be roasted in the shell in a home oven if spread out one layer deep in a pan and baked at a temperature of 350°F or 177°C for 18-20 minutes.
MALNUTRITION
Groundnuts are used to help fight malnutrition. Plumpy Nut, MANA Nutrition, and Medika Mamba are high-protein, high-energy and high-nutrient groundnut-based pastes developed to be used as a therapeutic food to aid in famine relief. The World Health Organization, UNICEF, Project Groundnut Butter and Doctors Without Borders have used these products to help save malnourished children in developing countries.
OTHER USES
Groundnuts can be used like other legumes and grains to make a lactose-free milk-like beverage, groundnut milk. Groundnut plant tops are used for hay.
Low-grade or culled groundnuts not suitable for the edible market are used in the production of groundnut oil for manufacturing. The protein cake (oilcake meal) residue from oil processing is used as an animal feed and as a soil fertilizer. Low-grade groundnuts are also widely sold as a garden bird feed.
Groundnuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish, lubricating oil, leather dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, and nitroglycerin are made from groundnut oil. Soap is made fromsaponified oil, and many cosmetics contain groundnut oil and its derivatives. The protein portion is used in the manufacture of some textile fibers. Groundnut shells are used in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard, abrasives, fuel, cellulose (used in rayon and paper) and mucilage (glue). Rudolf Diesel ran some of the first engines that bear his name on groundnut oil and it is still seen as a potentially useful fuel.
ALLERGIES
Some people (1-2% of the United States population) have mild to severe allergic reactions to groundnut exposure; symptoms can range from watery eyes to anaphylactic shock, which can be fatal if untreated. For these individuals, eating a small amount of groundnuts can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, the avoidance of groundnuts is difficult. Some foods processed in facilities which also handle groundnuts may carry warnings on their labels indicating such.
Cardiovascular disease
A 1974 study suggested that consuming large amounts of groundnut oil can cause clogging of the arteries. Robert Wissler of the University of Chicago reported that diets high in groundnut oil, when combined with high dietary cholesterol intake, clogged the arteries of Rhesus monkeys more than butterfat. However, subsequent work has cast serious doubt on those findings. In the Rhesus study, monkeys were being fed 20 times higher than normal dietary quantities of cholesterol in addition to groundnut oil. When a similar study was performed without abnormal doses of cholesterol, no such effect was seen. In fact, groundnut oil has been found to lower LDL cholesterol without reducing beneficial HDL cholesterol.